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Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Penis

Notes on evidence gaps (transparent limitations)

2026-05-10
Falcon MONDO:0018352 Model: Edison Scientific Literature 30 citations

1. Disease Information

1.1 Definition / overview

Penile cancer is a rare malignancy, and PSCC is the dominant histology. A 2024 review states: “Neoplasm of the penis is relatively rare in most regions representing 0–2% of cancers worldwide” and “Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma (PSCC) represents approximately 95% of all penile neoplasms” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). A 2024 systematic review similarly reports that “Approximately 95% of PeCa cases are squamous cell carcinomas (SCC)” (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2).

1.2 Key identifiers

  • MONDO: MONDO:0018352 (squamous cell carcinoma of penis) (OpenTargets Search: penile squamous cell carcinoma)
  • Other identifiers (ICD-10/ICD-11/MeSH/OMIM/Orphanet): Not retrievable from the currently indexed full texts in this tool run; therefore not reported here to avoid mislabeling.

1.3 Synonyms / alternative names

1.4 Evidence provenance

The present report is derived from aggregated disease-level resources: peer‑reviewed reviews (2023–2024), a large tumor genomic profiling cohort study (2023), and ClinicalTrials.gov trial registry records (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2, mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2, thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2, NCT06353906 chunk 1, NCT04224740 chunk 1, NCT02837042 chunk 1).

2. Etiology

2.1 Disease causal factors (mechanistic categories)

PSCC is etiologically heterogeneous and is commonly described as comprising HPV‑associated and HPV‑independent disease pathways (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2, pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

2.2 Risk factors (human epidemiology/clinical consensus)

Infectious (HPV): - A 2024 HPV-focused review reports “Approximately 40% of penile tumors are associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection” (abstract wording) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2). - The same review emphasizes HPV16 dominance and provides the HPV16 share among HPV-associated cases (46%–62.5%) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6). - A systematic review notes “high-risk HPV... implicated in up to 50% of PeCa cases” (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2).

Genital/dermatologic/clinical: - Risk factors summarized in a 2024 review include “lack of neonatal circumcision, poor genital hygiene, socioeconomic status, history of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN)” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). - Phimosis is repeatedly highlighted as a major risk factor in contemporary reviews (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2, antar2024theevolvingmolecular pages 17-18).

Behavioral/environmental: - Tobacco use and sexual behavior factors (e.g., unsafe sex behavior via HPV transmission) are discussed as risk factors in 2024 summaries (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2, antar2024theevolvingmolecular pages 17-18).

2.3 Protective factors

Protective-factor effect sizes (e.g., quantitative risk reduction with circumcision or vaccination) were not present in the retrieved evidence set in this run and are therefore not quantified here. However, HPV vaccination is explicitly described as a prevention strategy (see Section 13) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6).

2.4 Gene–environment interactions

Direct, quantitative GxE interaction studies were not identified in the retrieved evidence set for this run. Nevertheless, a biologically plausible interaction is implied by HPV-driven carcinogenesis (viral E6/E7 disruption of tumor suppressors) operating alongside host somatic alterations and immune microenvironment features (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6, nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2).

3. Phenotypes

3.1 Clinical presentation and key phenotypic features

PSCC can present variably; diagnosis is challenging because of “variety of clinical presentations” (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2). A 2024 review notes that diagnosis often occurs late—“a common trend is for diagnosis to occur late (stage 4)” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). Tumors “most commonly arise on the glans and inner prepuce” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2).

Locoregional spread/lymph nodes: Lymph node involvement is a common concern; “Lymph node involvement is a common finding at first presentation” and careful assessment of nodal disease is emphasized (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). Occult nodal metastasis risk in clinically node-negative invasive disease is estimated at ~20–25% (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107).

3.2 Suggested HPO terms (examples; not exhaustive)

Because the retrieved sources were largely review-level and did not provide structured HPO mappings, the following are ontology suggestions consistent with described clinical manifestations and work-up: - Penile lesion / penile neoplasm: suggested HP:0100608 (Penile abnormality) (term-family suggestion) - Pain: suggested HP:0012531 (Pain) (general; site-specific terms may be used if available) - Inguinal lymphadenopathy: suggested HP:0002714 (Inguinal lymphadenopathy) - Sexual dysfunction / erectile dysfunction: suggested HP:0100639 (Erectile dysfunction) (QoL impact is emphasized in penile cancer care literature) (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2)

Note: Formal frequencies per phenotype were not provided in the retrieved sources in this run.

3.3 Quality of life impact

A 2024 review highlights that surgery can “lead to severe decrease of quality of life” and that many individuals experience major QoL impact (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2).

4. Genetic / Molecular Information

4.1 Causal genes (germline)

No single-gene germline causal model for PSCC was supported by the retrieved evidence set in this run. PSCC is primarily a malignancy driven by somatic alterations and/or HPV-associated oncogenesis (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2, mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6).

4.2 Somatic genomic landscape (primary tumor profiling)

A large NGS cohort study profiled 108 PSCC tumors and found the most common somatic alterations were TP53 (46%), CDKN2A (26%), and PIK3CA (25%) (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2). This supports recurrent disruption of tumor suppression/cell cycle control (TP53, CDKN2A) and PI3K signaling.

HPV-stratified differences (subset n=29 with HPV16/18 calls): - HPV16/18-positive tumors showed enrichment of KMT2C mutations (33%) and FGF3 amplifications (30.8%). - HPV16/18-negative tumors showed more frequent CDKN2A mutations (37.5%). These subtype differences are reported in the same 2023 cohort analysis (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2).

4.3 Biomarkers relevant to therapy selection

In the 108-case cohort: - PD-L1 positive: 51% - TMB-high (≥10 mut/Mb): 10.7% - dMMR/MSI-high: 1.1% (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2)

A 2024 therapeutic-target review summarizes PD-L1 IHC positivity across studies as 33–60%, and reports that mismatch repair deficiency/MSI-H is rare; it also notes high TMB in ~18–20% overall and that one study found TMB ≥10 mut/Mb in 30.8% of HPV-related tumors and not in HPV-unrelated tumors (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

4.4 Epigenetic / chromosomal abnormalities

No specific PSCC epigenetic maps or recurrent structural variants were extractable from the retrieved evidence set in this run.

4.5 Suggested GO biological processes and CL cell types

Processes (GO term suggestions consistent with described mechanisms): - Viral process / viral gene expression (HPV E6/E7) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6) - Cell cycle dysregulation; regulation of apoptotic signaling (TP53 pathway disruption) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6, nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2) - PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation (via PIK3CA alterations) (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2) - Immune evasion / immune exclusion in tumor microenvironment (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2)

Cell types (CL term suggestions): - Keratinocytes / squamous epithelial cells (tumor cell of origin) - CD8+ T cells, FOXP3+ regulatory T cells, macrophages (CD163+) as noted in PSCC immune microenvironment descriptions (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2)

5. Environmental Information

5.1 Environmental/lifestyle factors

Reviews list tobacco use, hygiene/socioeconomic factors, and sexual behavior risk (as mediated through HPV transmission) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2, thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2, antar2024theevolvingmolecular pages 17-18).

5.2 Infectious agents

High-risk HPV is the principal infectious contributor. The 2024 HPV-focused review discusses HPV types and states that HPV16 accounts for 46–62.5% of HPV-associated penile cancers (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6).

6. Mechanism / Pathophysiology

6.1 HPV-driven carcinogenesis (upstream triggers)

HPV-associated PSCC is driven by viral oncoproteins. The 2024 review summarizes that HPV E6 and E7 “inhibit p53 and Rb” (functional description) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6). This provides a causal chain from persistent HR-HPV infection → E6/E7 expression → tumor suppressor pathway disruption → uncontrolled proliferation.

6.2 Somatic oncogenic pathways (HPV-independent and shared)

Somatic alterations frequently affect TP53, CDKN2A, and PI3K signaling (PIK3CA), consistent with cell-cycle deregulation and growth/survival signaling (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2). HPV-unrelated tumors are described as having more frequent TP53 mutation/loss and slightly worse prognosis in review synthesis (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

6.3 Immune microenvironment and therapy-relevant biology

A 2024 systematic review describes PSCC as often “immune excluded” with stromal enrichment of immune cells, including CD8+ and FOXP3+ cells, and notes higher CD163+ macrophage density in HPV-positive tumors (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2). These features motivate investigation of checkpoint inhibitors and combinations (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

7. Anatomical Structures Affected

7.1 Organ/tissue level

Primary sites commonly include glans and inner prepuce (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2).

Regional spread: predictable stepwise spread to inguinal nodes is emphasized in nodal-management reviews; occult metastases in cN0 invasive cases are ~20–25% (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107).

7.2 Suggested UBERON terms (examples)

  • Penis: suggested UBERON:0000989
  • Glans penis: suggested UBERON term for glans penis
  • Inguinal lymph node: suggested UBERON:0001542 (inguinal lymph node)

8. Temporal Development

8.1 Onset

PSCC is “most commonly diagnosed in older men” (review summary) (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2), and one review reports mean age at diagnosis 67 years in the U.S. context (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

8.2 Progression / staging-related course

Late presentation is common (“diagnosis… late (stage 4)”) (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). Prognosis is strongly driven by depth of invasion and nodal/metastatic status (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

9. Inheritance and Population

9.1 Epidemiology (recent quantitative points)

9.2 Genetic inheritance

No Mendelian inheritance pattern is supported for PSCC in the retrieved evidence set; PSCC is primarily sporadic/somatic with infectious contributions (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2, mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

10. Diagnostics

10.1 Clinical and pathology diagnosis

A 2024 review states: “Diagnosis of PSCC is done through clinical examination… followed by a biopsy, which is essential for the classification” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). Nodal evaluation is critical; PET-CT is mentioned as aiding deep-node evaluation (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2).

10.2 Biomarker/pathology adjuncts

p16INK4a is described as an HPV-associated marker; in one 2024 review summary, p16INK4a is reported as overexpressed in HPV lesions and “has 100% specificity and positive predictive value” (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

10.3 Lymph node staging innovations (real-world implementations)

The 2023 intercontinental EAU/ASCO update is summarized as recommending dynamic sentinel node biopsy (DSNB) as the preferred method for nodal staging in selected patients (≥T1b) (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107). Quantitative DSNB metrics reported in the 2024 review include a large-cohort false-negative rate of “8.7% per groin” and a 2-year probability of a negative DSNB later being a false-negative procedure of 2.5% (1.4% per groin) (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107). Reported DSNB morbidity metrics include overall complications 22% and major complications 3% in one review summary, with wound infection ~10% and lymphocele ~3% (aydin2024minimallyinvasivemanagement pages 2-4).

11. Outcome / Prognosis

11.1 Prognostic factors

A 2024 review indicates that “tumor size, invasion, nodal status, and metastases are primary prognostic factors” (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2). HPV-associated histologic subtypes are described as conferring markedly higher nodal involvement risk (a “28-fold increased relative risk of inguinal lymph node involvement”) (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

11.2 Survival statistics

Robust stage-stratified 5- and 10-year OS/CSS statistics were not extractable from the retrieved evidence set in this run; therefore they are not reported to avoid inaccuracies.

12. Treatment

12.1 Standard modalities (current understanding)

A 2024 review states: “Surgical removal of the tumor is considered the most effective” but can significantly reduce quality of life; chemotherapy is used for “fixed or bulky lymph nodes… and for distant metastasis,” and radiation therapy is “particularly effective in the case of HPV-positive PSCC” (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2). Contemporary therapy reviews note that the systemic backbone for unresectable/metastatic disease remains cisplatin-based chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy, with growing exploration of targeted therapy and immune checkpoint inhibition (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

12.2 Immunotherapy evidence and expert synthesis

A 2024 systematic review emphasizes limited trial-result availability and reports that only one qualifying phase-2 study met inclusion criteria, with an “objective response rate… 6% across nineteen patients” (basket of histologies; only 6 penile cases) (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2). A 2024 therapeutic-target review concludes that antibody–drug conjugates and ICI combinations are promising directions (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2).

12.3 Real-world implementations: nodal management

Because outcomes are highly dependent on nodal metastasis, DSNB and minimally invasive approaches to inguinal lymph node management are emphasized as pragmatic strategies to reduce morbidity while improving staging accuracy (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107, aydin2024minimallyinvasivemanagement pages 2-4).

12.4 Active/recent clinical trials (ClinicalTrials.gov; key NCTs)

Pembrolizumab + chemotherapy combinations: - NCT04224740 (HERCULES; LACOG 0218): Phase II, single-group; pembrolizumab 200 mg q3w plus platinum (cisplatin 70 mg/m² D1 or carboplatin AUC 5) + 5‑FU (1000 mg/m²/day D1–4) q3w for 6 cycles; 37 participants; completed 2023‑11‑13 (registry) (NCT04224740 chunk 1). - NCT06353906 (PRIAM): Phase II induction carboplatin/paclitaxel plus pembrolizumab (400 mg on cycles 1 and 3) for node-positive resectable disease, followed by consolidative surgery and adjuvant pembrolizumab; primary endpoint pCR; recruiting (NCT06353906 chunk 1).

Single-agent pembrolizumab (advanced PSCC): - NCT02837042: Phase II pembrolizumab after prior chemotherapy; enrolled 6; terminated for poor accrual (NCT02837042 chunk 1).

EGFR-directed antibody–drug conjugate + PD-1 combinations (emerging targeted therapy): - NCT07054307: Phase I in EGFR-positive unresectable/metastatic PSCC; MRG003 (EGFR-ADC) + HX008 (PD‑1); planned n=10; recruiting (NCT07054307 chunk 2). - NCT07518979: Phase II neoadjuvant EGFR-ADC (becotatug vedotin) + PD‑1 inhibitor (pucotenlimab) in advanced PSCC with penile-preservation difficulty or regional nodal metastasis; not yet recruiting (estimated start 2026) (NCT07518979 chunk 1).

12.5 Suggested MAXO terms (examples)

13. Prevention

13.1 Primary prevention

HPV vaccination: A 2024 review notes prophylactic vaccines protecting against high-risk HPV16/18 (e.g., Gardasil 9) and states ACIP recommends vaccination for boys aged 11–12 with catch-up through 21 (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6). Given the fraction of PSCC that is HPV-associated (≈38.5–40% in one review), vaccination is a plausible population-level prevention lever (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2).

13.2 Secondary prevention

No population-wide screening program evidence was extractable from this run; however, timely clinical evaluation and biopsy-based diagnosis are emphasized (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2).

14. Other Species / Natural Disease

No naturally occurring veterinary PSCC analogs or zoonotic considerations were identified in the retrieved evidence set in this run.

15. Model Organisms

No model organism systems (genetically engineered mouse models, organoids, etc.) were identified in the retrieved evidence set in this run.

Notes on evidence gaps (transparent limitations)

  1. ICD/MeSH/OMIM/Orphanet identifiers were not extractable from the retrieved full texts in this run; only MONDO identifiers were obtained through an ontology resource (OpenTargets). (OpenTargets Search: penile squamous cell carcinoma)
  2. Stage-stratified survival outcomes (e.g., 5-year OS/CSS by stage) were not present in the retrieved evidence set and thus are not provided.
  3. Protective-factor effect sizes (circumcision/vaccination quantitative risk reduction) and gene–environment interaction studies were not identified in the retrieved evidence set.

Retrieved visual evidence

A table image summarizing approximate frequencies of PSCC histologic subtypes was retrieved from Thumma et al. 2024 (Frontiers in Oncology) and can be used for knowledge-base subtype frequency curation (thumma2024acomprehensivereview media 89cd9d95).

References

  1. (OpenTargets Search: penile squamous cell carcinoma): Open Targets Query (penile squamous cell carcinoma, 0 results). Buniello, A. et al. (2025). Open Targets Platform: facilitating therapeutic hypotheses building in drug discovery. Nucleic Acids Research.

  2. (thumma2024acomprehensivereview pages 1-2): Nishanth Thumma, Neharaj Pitla, Vasavi Gorantla, and Maira du Plessis. A comprehensive review of current knowledge on penile squamous cell carcinoma. Frontiers in Oncology, May 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2024.1375882, doi:10.3389/fonc.2024.1375882. This article has 21 citations.

  3. (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 1-2): Gowtam Mannam, Justin W. Miller, Jeffrey S. Johnson, Keerthi Gullapalli, Adnan Fazili, Philippe E. Spiess, and Jad Chahoud. Hpv and penile cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical insights. Pathogens, 13:809, Sep 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13090809, doi:10.3390/pathogens13090809. This article has 26 citations.

  4. (antar2024theevolvingmolecular pages 17-18): Ryan Michael Antar, Christopher Fawaz, Diego Gonzalez, Vincent Eric Xu, Arthur Pierre Drouaud, Jason Krastein, Faozia Pio, Andeulazia Murdock, Kirolos Youssef, Stanislav Sobol, and Michael J. Whalen. The evolving molecular landscape and actionable alterations in urologic cancers. Current Oncology, 31:6909-6937, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol31110511, doi:10.3390/curroncol31110511. This article has 6 citations.

  5. (pagliaro2024therapeutictargetsin pages 1-2): Lance C Pagliaro, Burak Tekin, Sounak Gupta, and Loren P Herrera Hernandez. Therapeutic targets in advanced penile cancer: from bench to bedside. Cancers, 16:2086, May 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers16112086, doi:10.3390/cancers16112086. This article has 15 citations.

  6. (mannam2024hpvandpenile pages 5-6): Gowtam Mannam, Justin W. Miller, Jeffrey S. Johnson, Keerthi Gullapalli, Adnan Fazili, Philippe E. Spiess, and Jad Chahoud. Hpv and penile cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical insights. Pathogens, 13:809, Sep 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13090809, doi:10.3390/pathogens13090809. This article has 26 citations.

  7. (fadigas2024immunotherapyinpenile pages 1-2): Filipe Fadigas, Diana Martins, and Fernando Mendes. Immunotherapy in penile cancer: a systematic review. Archivos espanoles de urologia, 77 10:1102-1111, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.56434/j.arch.esp.urol.20247710.154, doi:10.56434/j.arch.esp.urol.20247710.154. This article has 0 citations.

  8. (nazha2023comprehensivegenomicprofiling pages 1-2): Bassel Nazha, Tony Zhuang, Sharon Wu, Jacqueline T. Brown, Daniel Magee, Bradley C. Carthon, Omer Kucuk, Chadi Nabhan, Pedro C. Barata, Elisabeth I. Heath, Charles J. Ryan, Rana R. McKay, Viraj A. Master, and Mehmet Asim Bilen. Comprehensive genomic profiling of penile squamous cell carcinoma and the impact of human papillomavirus status on immune‐checkpoint inhibitor‐related biomarkers. Cancer, 129:3884-3893, Aug 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.34982, doi:10.1002/cncr.34982. This article has 45 citations and is from a domain leading peer-reviewed journal.

  9. (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 102-107): Manon T. A. Vreeburg, Maarten L. Donswijk, Maarten Albersen, Arie Parnham, Benjamin Ayres, Chris Protzel, Curtis Pettaway, Philippe E. Spiess, and Oscar R. Brouwer. New eau/asco guideline recommendations on sentinel node biopsy for penile cancer and remaining challenges from a nuclear medicine perspective. European journal of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging, 51:2861-2868, Jan 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-023-06586-6, doi:10.1007/s00259-023-06586-6. This article has 7 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.

  10. (vreeburg2024neweauascoguideline pages 110-113): Manon T. A. Vreeburg, Maarten L. Donswijk, Maarten Albersen, Arie Parnham, Benjamin Ayres, Chris Protzel, Curtis Pettaway, Philippe E. Spiess, and Oscar R. Brouwer. New eau/asco guideline recommendations on sentinel node biopsy for penile cancer and remaining challenges from a nuclear medicine perspective. European journal of nuclear medicine and molecular imaging, 51:2861-2868, Jan 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-023-06586-6, doi:10.1007/s00259-023-06586-6. This article has 7 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.

  11. (aydin2024minimallyinvasivemanagement pages 2-4): Ahmet Murat Aydin, Emily Biben, Alice Yu, Nicholas H. Chakiryan, Reza Mehrazin, and Philippe E. Spiess. Minimally invasive management of inguinal lymph nodes in penile cancer: recent progress and remaining challenges. Cancers, 16:2935, Aug 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers16172935, doi:10.3390/cancers16172935. This article has 6 citations.

  12. (NCT04224740 chunk 1): Pembrolizumab Combined With Cisplatin-based Chemotherapy as First-line Systemic Therapy in Advanced Penile Cancer. Latin American Cooperative Oncology Group. 2020. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04224740

  13. (NCT02837042 chunk 1): Lisle Nabell. Trial of Pembrolizumab for Advanced Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma. University of Alabama at Birmingham. 2016. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02837042

  14. (NCT06353906 chunk 1): Carboplatin/Paclitaxel + Pembrolizumab for Locoregionally Advanced Penile Cancer. The Netherlands Cancer Institute. 2024. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT06353906

  15. (NCT07054307 chunk 2): Jiyan Liu. MRG003 Plus HX008 as First-Line Treatment for EGFR-Positive Locally Advanced or Metastatic Penile Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Jiyan Liu. 2026. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT07054307

  16. (NCT07518979 chunk 1): Jiyan Liu. EGFR-ADC (Becotatug Vedotin) Combined With PD-1 Inhibitor (Pucotenlimab) in Neoadjuvant Treatment of Advanced Penile Cancer. Jiyan Liu. 2026. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT07518979

  17. (thumma2024acomprehensivereview media 89cd9d95): Nishanth Thumma, Neharaj Pitla, Vasavi Gorantla, and Maira du Plessis. A comprehensive review of current knowledge on penile squamous cell carcinoma. Frontiers in Oncology, May 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2024.1375882, doi:10.3389/fonc.2024.1375882. This article has 21 citations.