Home / Deep Research / Paratyphoid Fever

Paratyphoid Fever

Recent developments and latest research highlights (2023–2024 prioritized)

2026-05-08
Falcon MONDO:0018626 Model: Edison Scientific Literature 53 citations

1. Disease Information

1.1 Definition and overview (current understanding)

Paratyphoid fever is part of “enteric fever,” a clinically similar syndrome to typhoid fever, but caused by Salmonella enterica serovars Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, or Paratyphi C (as opposed to typhoid fever caused by S. Typhi) (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2, chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2). A GBD-based analysis states that paratyphoid “shares similar clinical characteristics with typhoid fever but is usually milder with a shorter incubation period” (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2).

1.2 Synonyms and alternate names

Commonly used terms include enteric fever (broader umbrella including typhoid + paratyphoid), and serovar-specific labels (e.g., “paratyphoid fever due to S. Paratyphi A”) (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2, chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2).

1.3 Data provenance (individual vs aggregated)

The evidence base combines (i) aggregated global burden modeling (GBD 1990–2021), (ii) prospective or surveillance cohorts (Dhaka 2018–2020 incidence), and (iii) hospital-based microbiology datasets and genomic surveillance (North Delhi pediatric isolates; Jiangsu genomic AMR study) (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2, rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2, kumar2024antimicrobialsusceptibilityof pages 2-3, peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 1-2).

2. Etiology

2.1 Causal factors

Paratyphoid fever is caused by infection with Salmonella enterica serovars Paratyphi A/B/C via contaminated food and water (fecal–oral transmission) (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2, rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2).

2.2 Risk factors (recent emphasis)

WASH-related exposures: Lack of safe drinking water and private toilets were associated with enteric fever risk in Dhaka surveillance (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2).

Travel exposure: In British Columbia (Fraser Health, 2018–2024), 96% of typhoidal Salmonella bacteremias were travel-associated, predominantly to South Asia (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 2-4).

Host factors (broader Salmonella/enteric fever literature in retrieved corpus): Dose-dependence and host susceptibility factors such as gastric hypochlorhydria, age, and immunosuppression are highlighted in a 2024 prevention-focused review, relevant as modifiers of infection risk and severity (zizza2024foodborneinfectionsand pages 6-8).

2.3 Protective factors

Direct protective-factor evidence specific to paratyphoid (e.g., immune correlates conferring reduced acquisition risk) was not identified in the retrieved 2023–2025 corpus. Indirectly, prevention strategies (WASH and vaccination against S. Typhi) reduce overall enteric fever burden but typhoid vaccines do not reliably protect against paratyphoid (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 7-8, jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 7-9).

2.4 Gene–environment interactions

No robust human germline gene–environment interaction evidence specific to paratyphoid fever was identified in the retrieved sources.

3. Phenotypes

3.1 Clinical phenotypes (signs/symptoms)

Clinical presentation overlaps strongly with typhoid fever, requiring laboratory confirmation (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2). In a large Canadian cohort of typhoidal Salmonella bacteremia cases, fever (97.8%) and gastrointestinal symptoms (73.5%) were common, illustrating the nonspecific febrile–GI syndrome relevant to paratyphoid (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5).

Suggested HPO terms (examples) are provided in artifact-01; core concepts include fever and diarrhea, with broader systemic manifestations consistent with enteric fever.

3.2 Laboratory abnormalities

Specific paratyphoid-focused lab abnormality frequencies were not extracted from the retrieved corpus. The general enteric fever literature and clinical series emphasize the need for microbiological confirmation and susceptibility testing (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2, lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5).

3.3 Quality-of-life impact

Direct QoL instruments (EQ-5D/SF-36) data specific to paratyphoid were not identified in the retrieved sources.

4. Genetic/Molecular Information

4.1 “Causal genes” and variants

Paratyphoid fever is an infectious disease; there are no human “causal genes” in the Mendelian sense.

4.2 Pathogen genomic determinants (AMR and lineages)

Paratyphi A (Taiwan, 2001–2024 surveillance): 223 cases were reported; among 88 sequenced isolates, 76.1% were resistant to nalidixic acid and non-susceptible to ciprofloxacin, attributed to gyrA codon 83 mutations (S83F/S83Y). Domestically acquired infections became predominant after 2022, with genomic relatedness suggesting introduction from Indonesia (liao2025paratyphoidfeverand pages 1-7).

Paratyphi B (Jiangsu, China, 2013–2022): Among 27 isolates, predominant STs were ST42 (11), ST86 (10), and ST2814 (5). Four of five ST2814 isolates were XDR (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 1-2). XDR was strongly linked to an IncHI2A plasmid carrying ramAp, which increased expression of AcrAB-TolC efflux genes and elevated MICs across multiple antibiotic classes (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 11-12).

5. Environmental Information

5.1 Environmental and lifestyle factors

Transmission is strongly linked to contaminated food and water and poor sanitation (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2, rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2). Food safety and safe handling of foods/water are repeatedly highlighted as primary prevention measures, including in travel medicine contexts (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 7-8, lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5).

5.2 Infectious agent

Pathogens: Salmonella enterica serovars Paratyphi A, B, C (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2, chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2).

6. Mechanism / Pathophysiology

6.1 Causal chain (exposure → disease)

1) Ingestion and intestinal entry: Contaminated food/water leads to intestinal exposure; invasion proceeds via epithelial interactions, including M-cell routes (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 3-5, ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8). 2) Epithelial invasion (upstream): SPI-1–encoded Type III secretion system (T3SS-1) mediates “trigger” invasion by manipulating host actin (SipA/SipC/SopB/SopE/SopE2) (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8). 3) Intracellular survival and systemic spread (downstream): Following uptake, Salmonella establishes a Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) and uses SPI-2/T3SS-2 for intracellular survival/replication and dissemination (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8, jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 3-5). 4) Immune modulation/evasion: Typhoidal Salmonella immune-evasion features include the Vi capsule (for certain serovars) that reduces complement/neutrophil recruitment and can target macrophages via DC-SIGN, plus SPI-encoded effectors that modulate NF-κB/MAPK/JNK and antigen presentation (han2024infectionbiologyof pages 32-34, ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8). 5) AMR as a treatment-modifying mechanism: Plasmids and mobile elements drive acquisition of AMR; in XDR Paratyphi B, ramAp-mediated efflux upregulation is a key contributor to multi-class resistance (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 11-12, punchihewagedon2024defensemechanismsof pages 1-2).

6.2 Pathways and processes (ontology-ready suggestions)

Suggested GO biological process concepts and relevant immune/epithelial cell types are summarized in artifact-01; key process themes include bacterial invasion, type III secretion, intracellular survival, and immune evasion (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8, jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 3-5, han2024infectionbiologyof pages 32-34).

7. Anatomical Structures Affected

Primary involvement is gastrointestinal with systemic dissemination (liver, spleen, blood) implied by invasion and macrophage-associated spread; gallbladder involvement is relevant for chronic carriage (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 3-5, jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 9-11). Suggested UBERON mappings are provided in artifact-01.

8. Temporal Development

Paratyphoid typically presents as an acute febrile illness; relative to typhoid, paratyphoid is described as often milder with shorter incubation (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2). Detailed stage models specific to paratyphoid were not identified in the retrieved sources.

9. Inheritance and Population

9.1 Epidemiology (recent quantitative data)

Urban Dhaka, Bangladesh (2018–2020): incidence for paratyphoid was 27/100,000 person-years (95% CI 23–32), compared with typhoid 216/100,000 person-years (95% CI 198–236), with highest incidence in children age 2–4 (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2).

GBD 1990–2021 trend: global paratyphoid new cases decreased 73.15% and deaths decreased 65.44% (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2).

9.2 Population and geography

The burden remains concentrated in South Asia (including Pakistan, India, Nepal for paratyphoid mortality/DALYs in GBD) (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2).

10. Diagnostics

10.1 Culture (reference standard, limitations)

Culture remains the diagnostic gold standard but sensitivity is limited and performance varies by specimen type and timing (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2, sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 2-4). In Ghana (2022–2023 sampling; published 2024), recovery from stool (14.7%) greatly exceeded blood (1.6%) in a clinically suspected cohort, consistent with shedding dynamics (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2).

10.2 Molecular diagnostics (PCR/qPCR)

In Egypt (published 2025), blood-based qPCR targeting ttr and invA showed far higher positivity than routine cultures: enriched blood qPCR positivity 90% (ttr) and 85% (invA) vs blood culture 48% and stool culture 32% (elaskary2025validationofstool pages 1-2). Compared with enriched qPCR as reference, direct blood qPCR had sensitivity 91.1% (ttr) and 94.1% (invA), with 100% specificity reported in both comparisons (elaskary2025validationofstool pages 4-5).

10.3 Rapid serology (RDTs)

Typhidot performed poorly in the Ghana study: sensitivity/specificity vs culture 35%/45%, and vs PCR 61%/53%, implying risk of misdiagnosis and inappropriate antibiotic use in endemic settings if used alone (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2).

Direct abstract-supported quote (Typhidot performance): The Ghana study concludes a “sub-optimal performance of the Typhidot RDT… with a higher chance for misdiagnosis and misapplication of antibiotics” (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2).

11. Outcome / Prognosis

In a large Canadian cohort (2018–2024), outcomes were favorable with effective care: 0% 30-day mortality, 97% clinical cure within 30 days, 3% relapse within 30 days, and median hospitalization 1 day (IQR 1–4) (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 5-7). Complications included sepsis/septic shock and rare intestinal perforation, indicating potential severity even in high-resource settings (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5).

12. Treatment

12.1 Antibiotic therapy (real-world practice and resistance constraints)

Modern management is dominated by AMR constraints, especially reduced fluoroquinolone susceptibility. In British Columbia, ciprofloxacin resistance was 96% in 2024 and the authors recommend avoiding empiric ciprofloxacin; ceftriaxone remained ~96–100% susceptible for Typhi and 100% for Paratyphi across years, and azithromycin susceptibility was high with rare nonsusceptible isolates (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 1-2, lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 5-7). Median effective antibiotic duration was 12 days (IQR 10–14) (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5).

In Bangladesh surveillance, MDR was far less common in Paratyphi A (0.8%) than Typhi (20.2%), but fluoroquinolone non-susceptibility and rising azithromycin resistance were noted as threats in some settings (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2).

12.2 MAXO suggestions

Key action ontology suggestions include blood culture, PCR/qPCR, antibiotic therapy, vaccination, and WASH interventions (artifact-01) (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 1-2, elaskary2025validationofstool pages 1-2, rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2).

13. Prevention

Primary prevention is based on WASH and safe food/water handling (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2, rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2). Travel-focused prevention stresses pre-travel counselling, food/water precautions, and typhoid vaccination (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 7-8). However, typhoid vaccines “do not protect against paratyphoid” (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 7-8). This gap is a principal driver of current paratyphoid vaccine development (alfini2024designofa pages 1-2, chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 4-5).

14. Other Species / Natural Disease

Typhoidal Salmonella (including Paratyphi) are described as human-restricted (host range confined to humans), implying no animal reservoir for paratyphoid fever transmission in the same way as non-typhoidal Salmonella (nazir2025combattingsalmonellaa pages 2-3, ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 19-20). This contrasts with NTS reservoirs in domestic and wild animals (zizza2024foodborneinfectionsand pages 6-8).

15. Model Organisms

A key constraint in paratyphoid research is the human restriction of typhoidal Salmonella. Nevertheless, multiple experimental systems are used:

Rodent models (adapted): A 2024 review describes a physiological mouse model enabling oral S. Typhi infection in wild-type BALB/c mice by co-administering iron (0.32 mg/g body weight) with desferrioxamine (25 mg/kg), achieving liver/spleen/bone marrow involvement similar to humans (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 6-7). This approach is used for studying pathogenesis and vaccine immunogenicity, and informs paratyphoid modeling strategies.

In vitro models: Human intestinal epithelial cell cultures and macrophage/immune-cell assays are widely used to dissect SPI-1 invasion, SCV survival, and immune modulation by effectors such as SteE/SteD/SpvD (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8).

Human studies: Live-attenuated Paratyphi A candidate CVD 1902 (ΔguaBA ΔclpX) has been evaluated in Phase 1 humans (single dose ~10^9–10^10 CFU) and elicited CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses (bansal2024geneticengineeringof pages 3-4).

Recent developments and latest research highlights (2023–2024 prioritized)

1) Emergence of XDR Paratyphi B with mechanistic resolution (2024): East China genomic analysis identifies plasmid-borne ramAp as a driver of broad resistance via AcrAB-TolC efflux upregulation, underscoring One Health surveillance needs (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 11-12).

2) Paratyphi A vaccine R&D maturation (2024): A rational-design glycoconjugate study shows immunogenicity depends on O:2 size, saccharide:protein ratio, cross-linking, and O-acetylation, guiding product development (alfini2024designofa pages 1-2). Table/Figure evidence from this paper is shown in the retrieved cropped table/figure regions (alfini2024designofa media c76829e9, alfini2024designofa media 5fca7cec, alfini2024designofa media 6729a2bb).

3) Diagnostics reality-check in endemic settings (2024): Typhidot RDT performed poorly versus culture and PCR in Ghana, supporting policy emphasis on validated diagnostics to reduce misapplication of antibiotics (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2).

Expert interpretation / analysis (evidence-based)

Key URLs and publication dates (examples from retrieved sources)

Limitations of this report

  • Disease identifier codes (ICD/MeSH/MONDO/Orphanet) were not recovered in the retrieved full texts; this report does not guess them.
  • Some template areas (QoL instruments; detailed paratyphoid-specific laboratory abnormality frequencies; controlled human infection model details for paratyphoid) were not available from the retrieved sources in this run.

References

  1. (rahman2025comparativeepidemiologyof pages 1-2): Sadia Isfat Ara Rahman, Md Golam Firoj, Se Eun Park, Farhana Khanam, Suneth Agampodi, Kassa Haile, Edilawit Mesfin, Faisal Ahmmed, Md Taufiqul Islam, Ashraful Islam Khan, Fahima Chowdhury, Afroza Akter, Martin Bundi Mwebia, Justin Im, Natasha Y. Rickett, Cecilia Kathure Mbae, Asma Binte Aziz, Beatrice Ongadi, Moses Mwangi, Benjamin Ngugi, Meseret Gebre Behute, Kelvin Kering, Suman Kanungo, Xinxue Liu, Deok Ryun Kim, Andrew J. Pollard, K Zaman, Samuel Kariuki, Firdausi Qadri, and John D. Clemens. Comparative epidemiology of salmonella paratyphi a and salmonella typhi causing enteric fever, bangladesh, 2018–2020. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 31:1922-1934, Oct 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3110.241601, doi:10.3201/eid3110.241601. This article has 1 citations and is from a domain leading peer-reviewed journal.

  2. (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 1-2): Suparna Chakraborty and Santasabuj Das. Typhoid & paratyphoid vaccine development in the laboratory: a review & in-country experience. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 160:379-390, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024, doi:10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024. This article has 3 citations.

  3. (liu2025theglobalburden pages 1-2): Guihong Liu, Xin Zhang, Qian Cao, Tao Chen, Binbin Hu, and Huashan Shi. The global burden of typhoid and paratyphoid fever from 1990 to 2021 and the impact on prevention and control. BMC Infectious Diseases, Jul 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-025-11223-8, doi:10.1186/s12879-025-11223-8. This article has 18 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  4. (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 1-2): Jiefu Peng, Jingchao Feng, Hong Ji, Xiaoxiao Kong, Jie Hong, Liguo Zhu, and Huimin Qian. Emergence of rarely reported extensively drug-resistant salmonella enterica serovar paratyphi b among patients in east china. Antibiotics, 13:519, Jun 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13060519, doi:10.3390/antibiotics13060519. This article has 5 citations.

  5. (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 11-12): Jiefu Peng, Jingchao Feng, Hong Ji, Xiaoxiao Kong, Jie Hong, Liguo Zhu, and Huimin Qian. Emergence of rarely reported extensively drug-resistant salmonella enterica serovar paratyphi b among patients in east china. Antibiotics, 13:519, Jun 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13060519, doi:10.3390/antibiotics13060519. This article has 5 citations.

  6. (alfini2024designofa pages 1-2): Renzo Alfini, Martina Carducci, Luisa Massai, Daniele De Simone, Marco Mariti, Omar Rossi, Simona Rondini, Francesca Micoli, and Carlo Giannelli. Design of a glycoconjugate vaccine against salmonella paratyphi a. Vaccines, 12:1272, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111272, doi:10.3390/vaccines12111272. This article has 10 citations.

  7. (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 4-5): Suparna Chakraborty and Santasabuj Das. Typhoid & paratyphoid vaccine development in the laboratory: a review & in-country experience. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 160:379-390, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024, doi:10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024. This article has 3 citations.

  8. (kumar2024antimicrobialsusceptibilityof pages 2-3): Arvind Kumar, Shekhar Biswas, Sulagna Tripathy, and Sanjay Chattree. Antimicrobial susceptibility of salmonella typhi and paratyphi among pediatric population at tertiary care center of north delhi: a retrospective study. Pediatric Infectious Disease, 6:88-91, Jul 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10081-1428, doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10081-1428. This article has 0 citations.

  9. (peng2024emergenceofrarely pages 2-4): Jiefu Peng, Jingchao Feng, Hong Ji, Xiaoxiao Kong, Jie Hong, Liguo Zhu, and Huimin Qian. Emergence of rarely reported extensively drug-resistant salmonella enterica serovar paratyphi b among patients in east china. Antibiotics, 13:519, Jun 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13060519, doi:10.3390/antibiotics13060519. This article has 5 citations.

  10. (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 1-2): Emmanuel Kweku Sam, Johnson Alagbo, Avis Asamoah, Felix Ansah, Kwesi Zandoh Tandoh, Lucas N. Amenga-Etego, and Samuel Duodu. Diagnostic performance of typhidot rdt in diagnosis of typhoid fever and antibiotic resistance characterisation in a cross-sectional study in southern ghana. BMC Infectious Diseases, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-10160-2, doi:10.1186/s12879-024-10160-2. This article has 6 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  11. (elaskary2025validationofstool pages 1-2): Shymaa A. Elaskary, Hanem Mohamed Badawy, Doaa S. Elgendy, Amany Mohammed Abdelmaksoud, and Rasha G. Mostafa. Validation of stool and blood analysis compared to inv a and ttr based direct blood qpcr assay as diagnostic tools for typhoid fever. BMC Microbiology, Jul 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-025-04127-9, doi:10.1186/s12866-025-04127-9. This article has 1 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  12. (elaskary2025validationofstool pages 4-5): Shymaa A. Elaskary, Hanem Mohamed Badawy, Doaa S. Elgendy, Amany Mohammed Abdelmaksoud, and Rasha G. Mostafa. Validation of stool and blood analysis compared to inv a and ttr based direct blood qpcr assay as diagnostic tools for typhoid fever. BMC Microbiology, Jul 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-025-04127-9, doi:10.1186/s12866-025-04127-9. This article has 1 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  13. (nazir2025combattingsalmonellaa pages 2-3): Junaid Nazir, Tasaduq Manzoor, Afnan Saleem, Ubaid Gani, Sahar Saleem Bhat, Shabir Khan, Zulfqarul Haq, Priyanka Jha, and Syed Mudasir Ahmad. Combatting salmonella: a focus on antimicrobial resistance and the need for effective vaccination. BMC Infectious Diseases, Jan 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-025-10478-5, doi:10.1186/s12879-025-10478-5. This article has 80 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  14. (punchihewagedon2024defensemechanismsof pages 1-2): Anuradha Jeewantha Punchihewage-Don, Priyanka Nilmini Ranaweera, and Salina Parveen. Defense mechanisms of salmonella against antibiotics: a review. Frontiers in Antibiotics, Sep 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3389/frabi.2024.1448796, doi:10.3389/frabi.2024.1448796. This article has 44 citations.

  15. (liao2025paratyphoidfeverand pages 1-7): Ying-Shu Liao, Yu-Ping Hong, Bo-Han Chen, You-Wun Wan, Ru-Hsiou Teng, Shiu-Yun Liang, Hsiao Lun Wei, Jui-Hsien Chang, Ming-Hao Yang, Chi-Sen Tsao, and Chien-Shun Chiou. Paratyphoid fever and the genomics of salmonella enterica serovar paratyphi a in taiwan. MedRxiv, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.04.11.25325632, doi:10.1101/2025.04.11.25325632. This article has 1 citations.

  16. (alfini2024designofa pages 2-4): Renzo Alfini, Martina Carducci, Luisa Massai, Daniele De Simone, Marco Mariti, Omar Rossi, Simona Rondini, Francesca Micoli, and Carlo Giannelli. Design of a glycoconjugate vaccine against salmonella paratyphi a. Vaccines, 12:1272, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111272, doi:10.3390/vaccines12111272. This article has 10 citations.

  17. (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 4-5): Calvin Ka-Fung Lo, Merisa Mok, Cole Schonhofer, Kevin Afra, and Shazia Masud. Current antimicrobial susceptibility trends and clinical outcomes of typhoidal salmonella in a large health authority in british columbia, canada. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040108, doi:10.3390/tropicalmed10040108. This article has 1 citations.

  18. (han2024infectionbiologyof pages 38-40): Jing Han, Nesreen Aljahdali, Shaohua Zhao, Hailin Tang, Heather Harbottle, Maria Hoffmann, Jonathan G. Frye, and Steven L. Foley. Infection biology of salmonella enterica. EcoSal Plus, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0001-2023, doi:10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0001-2023. This article has 88 citations.

  19. (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 7-8): Adishi Ranjan, Mahek Chandna, Nicole J. Stevens, Jana Kandil, Brianna Dinh, Macy Kuhn, Noor Mian, Bach Tran, Abdullah Hamid, Peter Kim, and Taseen S. Desin. Salmonella infections: global trends and emerging challenges. Microorganisms, 14:816, Apr 2026. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14040816, doi:10.3390/microorganisms14040816. This article has 0 citations.

  20. (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 3-5): Iqra Jamil, Dr Asad Ur Rehman, Dr Fayyaz Ur Rehman, and Dr Farhan Rasheed. Emerging antimicrobial resistance in typhoid fever: challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Medical & Health Sciences Review, Jun 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.62019/a1v2gq57, doi:10.62019/a1v2gq57. This article has 2 citations.

  21. (han2024infectionbiologyof pages 32-34): Jing Han, Nesreen Aljahdali, Shaohua Zhao, Hailin Tang, Heather Harbottle, Maria Hoffmann, Jonathan G. Frye, and Steven L. Foley. Infection biology of salmonella enterica. EcoSal Plus, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0001-2023, doi:10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0001-2023. This article has 88 citations.

  22. (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 9-11): Iqra Jamil, Dr Asad Ur Rehman, Dr Fayyaz Ur Rehman, and Dr Farhan Rasheed. Emerging antimicrobial resistance in typhoid fever: challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Medical & Health Sciences Review, Jun 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.62019/a1v2gq57, doi:10.62019/a1v2gq57. This article has 2 citations.

  23. (sam2024diagnosticperformanceof pages 2-4): Emmanuel Kweku Sam, Johnson Alagbo, Avis Asamoah, Felix Ansah, Kwesi Zandoh Tandoh, Lucas N. Amenga-Etego, and Samuel Duodu. Diagnostic performance of typhidot rdt in diagnosis of typhoid fever and antibiotic resistance characterisation in a cross-sectional study in southern ghana. BMC Infectious Diseases, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-024-10160-2, doi:10.1186/s12879-024-10160-2. This article has 6 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.

  24. (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 5-7): Iqra Jamil, Dr Asad Ur Rehman, Dr Fayyaz Ur Rehman, and Dr Farhan Rasheed. Emerging antimicrobial resistance in typhoid fever: challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Medical & Health Sciences Review, Jun 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.62019/a1v2gq57, doi:10.62019/a1v2gq57. This article has 2 citations.

  25. (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 1-2): Calvin Ka-Fung Lo, Merisa Mok, Cole Schonhofer, Kevin Afra, and Shazia Masud. Current antimicrobial susceptibility trends and clinical outcomes of typhoidal salmonella in a large health authority in british columbia, canada. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040108, doi:10.3390/tropicalmed10040108. This article has 1 citations.

  26. (jamil2025emergingantimicrobialresistance pages 7-9): Iqra Jamil, Dr Asad Ur Rehman, Dr Fayyaz Ur Rehman, and Dr Farhan Rasheed. Emerging antimicrobial resistance in typhoid fever: challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Medical & Health Sciences Review, Jun 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.62019/a1v2gq57, doi:10.62019/a1v2gq57. This article has 2 citations.

  27. (bansal2024geneticengineeringof pages 3-4): Garima Bansal, Mostafa Ghanem, Khandra T. Sears, James E. Galen, and Sharon M. Tennant. Genetic engineering of salmonella spp. for novel vaccine strategies and therapeutics. EcoSal Plus, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0004-2023, doi:10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0004-2023. This article has 11 citations.

  28. (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 2-4): Calvin Ka-Fung Lo, Merisa Mok, Cole Schonhofer, Kevin Afra, and Shazia Masud. Current antimicrobial susceptibility trends and clinical outcomes of typhoidal salmonella in a large health authority in british columbia, canada. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040108, doi:10.3390/tropicalmed10040108. This article has 1 citations.

  29. (zizza2024foodborneinfectionsand pages 6-8): Antonella Zizza, Alessandra Fallucca, Marcello Guido, Vincenzo Restivo, Marco Roveta, and Cecilia Trucchi. Foodborne infections and salmonella: current primary prevention tools and future perspectives. Vaccines, 13:29, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines13010029, doi:10.3390/vaccines13010029. This article has 30 citations.

  30. (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 7-8): Calvin Ka-Fung Lo, Merisa Mok, Cole Schonhofer, Kevin Afra, and Shazia Masud. Current antimicrobial susceptibility trends and clinical outcomes of typhoidal salmonella in a large health authority in british columbia, canada. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040108, doi:10.3390/tropicalmed10040108. This article has 1 citations.

  31. (lo2025currentantimicrobialsusceptibility pages 5-7): Calvin Ka-Fung Lo, Merisa Mok, Cole Schonhofer, Kevin Afra, and Shazia Masud. Current antimicrobial susceptibility trends and clinical outcomes of typhoidal salmonella in a large health authority in british columbia, canada. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Apr 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10040108, doi:10.3390/tropicalmed10040108. This article has 1 citations.

  32. (ranjan2026salmonellainfectionsglobal pages 19-20): Adishi Ranjan, Mahek Chandna, Nicole J. Stevens, Jana Kandil, Brianna Dinh, Macy Kuhn, Noor Mian, Bach Tran, Abdullah Hamid, Peter Kim, and Taseen S. Desin. Salmonella infections: global trends and emerging challenges. Microorganisms, 14:816, Apr 2026. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms14040816, doi:10.3390/microorganisms14040816. This article has 0 citations.

  33. (chakraborty2024typhoid&paratyphoid pages 6-7): Suparna Chakraborty and Santasabuj Das. Typhoid & paratyphoid vaccine development in the laboratory: a review & in-country experience. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 160:379-390, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024, doi:10.25259/ijmr_1382_2024. This article has 3 citations.

  34. (alfini2024designofa media c76829e9): Renzo Alfini, Martina Carducci, Luisa Massai, Daniele De Simone, Marco Mariti, Omar Rossi, Simona Rondini, Francesca Micoli, and Carlo Giannelli. Design of a glycoconjugate vaccine against salmonella paratyphi a. Vaccines, 12:1272, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111272, doi:10.3390/vaccines12111272. This article has 10 citations.

  35. (alfini2024designofa media 5fca7cec): Renzo Alfini, Martina Carducci, Luisa Massai, Daniele De Simone, Marco Mariti, Omar Rossi, Simona Rondini, Francesca Micoli, and Carlo Giannelli. Design of a glycoconjugate vaccine against salmonella paratyphi a. Vaccines, 12:1272, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111272, doi:10.3390/vaccines12111272. This article has 10 citations.

  36. (alfini2024designofa media 6729a2bb): Renzo Alfini, Martina Carducci, Luisa Massai, Daniele De Simone, Marco Mariti, Omar Rossi, Simona Rondini, Francesca Micoli, and Carlo Giannelli. Design of a glycoconjugate vaccine against salmonella paratyphi a. Vaccines, 12:1272, Nov 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12111272, doi:10.3390/vaccines12111272. This article has 10 citations.