Endometrial Carcinoma

1. Disease Information

1.1 Overview (current understanding)

Endometrial carcinoma (EC) is a heterogeneous malignancy arising from the endometrial lining of the uterine corpus. Contemporary clinical management is increasingly guided by integrated histologic and molecular classification, particularly the four-group TCGA/ProMisE framework (POLE-mutated, mismatch repair deficient, p53-abnormal, and no specific molecular profile), which stratifies prognosis and influences treatment selection. (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 1-2, kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 5-6, ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

1.2 Synonyms and alternative names

Commonly used synonyms in the literature include endometrial cancer, endometrial carcinoma, and uterine corpus cancer (often grouped under “uterine cancer” in registry statistics and clinical practice discussions). (rodriguez2025trendsinendometrial pages 1-2, guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 15-18)

1.3 Key identifiers (ICD/MeSH/MONDO)

The retrieved full-text sources used here did not explicitly provide ICD-10/ICD-11 codes, MeSH IDs, or MONDO IDs for endometrial carcinoma. Where ontology identifiers are required for knowledge-base population, an additional targeted ontology lookup (e.g., MONDO/MeSH/ICD browsers) is needed beyond the currently retrieved corpus. (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 4-5, kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 1-2)

1.4 Evidence provenance (patient vs aggregated)

Most information summarized here derives from aggregated evidence: randomized phase III trials, national cancer registries (SEER/USCS-based analyses), and systematic reviews/meta-analyses. (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8, eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7, guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 4-12, clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2)

2. Etiology

2.1 Causal factors and major mechanistic contributors

A major etiologic axis for many endometrioid endometrial carcinomas is estrogen-driven proliferative signaling (classically described in the Bokhman “Type I” pathway), whereas more aggressive non-endometrioid subtypes align with “Type II” biology in the historical dualistic model. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

2.2 Risk factors

2.2.1 Genetic risk factors

• Lynch syndrome / mismatch repair (MMR) genes: A subset of EC is associated with germline pathogenic variants affecting DNA mismatch repair (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2). In a recent molecular-classification review, Lynch syndrome is estimated to account for ~2–5% of endometrial cancers, while MMR/MSI alterations are much more common at the tumor level. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

2.2.2 Environmental and lifestyle risk factors

• Obesity: A large U.S. incidence trends analysis (2001–2021) highlights obesity as a dominant contributor, stating that ~60% of U.S. endometrial cancers are linked to obesity. (guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 15-18)

2.3 Protective factors

Protective factors were not quantified in the retrieved endometrial-cancer-specific sources in this run; additional targeted searches (e.g., for hormonal contraception, parity, metformin/aspirin, weight loss interventions) would be required for evidence-backed estimates.

2.4 Gene–environment interactions

The retrieved sources did not provide direct quantitative gene–environment interaction estimates for EC. Mechanistically, interactions are plausible (e.g., obesity/hyperestrogenism interacting with PI3K pathway lesions), but specific GxE statistics were not extractable from the accessed documents.

3. Phenotypes (clinical presentation)

3.1 Key presenting features and frequencies

Postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) is a dominant presenting symptom: - Meta-analysis: pooled prevalence of PMB among women with endometrial cancer = 91% (95% CI 87–93%). (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2) - Meta-analysis: pooled risk of endometrial cancer among women presenting with PMB = 9% (95% CI 8–11%). (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2) - Danish nationwide cohort (43,756 PMB patients): absolute risk of endometrial cancer after a first-time hospital PMB diagnosis was 4.66% at 1 year and 5.18% at 5 years. (bengtsen2019firsttimepostmenopausalbleeding pages 5-6)

3.2 Onset and course

Typical onset is adult/postmenopausal; however, incidence is rising among younger (premenopausal) women in U.S. registry analyses. (guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 4-12)

3.3 Quality of life impact

The retrieved sources did not provide disease-specific quantitative QoL instruments (e.g., EQ-5D, SF-36) or PROMIS metrics for EC in this run; however, symptom-driven care seeking (e.g., response to PMB) has recognized patient-level implications for timely diagnosis. (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2)

3.4 Suggested HPO terms (non-exhaustive)

• Postmenopausal vaginal bleeding (HPO suggestion; commonly mapped as abnormal uterine bleeding in ontologies)
• Abnormal uterine bleeding
• Pelvic pain (noted as common in diagnostic triage datasets) (doll2024endometrialthicknessas pages 1-2)

(Exact HPO IDs were not provided in the accessed texts and should be mapped via HPO lookup.)

4. Genetic/Molecular Information

4.1 Core molecular taxonomy (TCGA/ProMisE)

Endometrial carcinoma is commonly categorized into four major molecular groups used in routine practice: POLE-mutated, MMR-deficient (MSI-hypermutated), p53-abnormal (copy-number high/serous-like), and NSMP (no specific molecular profile; copy-number low). (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 1-2, kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 5-6, ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

Table: This table summarizes the four TCGA/ProMisE molecular subtypes of endometrial carcinoma, the routine biomarkers/tests used to classify them, their usual prognostic implications, and representative frequent alterations reported in the provided evidence snippets.

4.2 Frequently altered genes and pathways (somatic)

Across subtypes, commonly discussed alterations include: - PI3K pathway lesions and genes including PTEN, PIK3CA, and others; NSMP/copy-number low is described as often having PI3K pathway alterations. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3) - TP53 mutations are frequent in the copy-number high/p53-abnormal group and are reported as common in non-endometrioid carcinomas; serous-like tumors may also show HER2 amplification. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3) - MMR gene loss (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, PMS2) characterizes the MSI/MMRd group. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

4.3 Epigenetics

MMR deficiency in EC can be driven by mechanisms including MLH1-related events; however, detailed epigenetic mechanisms (e.g., methylation subtype frequencies, chromatin programs) were not comprehensively extractable from the retrieved endometrial-cancer-specific texts in this run. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

5. Environmental Information

This run retrieved limited EC-specific information beyond obesity-related burden. Environmental toxicant exposures and infectious etiologies were not supported by the accessed full texts; additional CTD/epidemiology searches would be required.

6. Mechanism / Pathophysiology

6.1 Conceptual causal chains (molecular-to-clinical)

• MMRd/MSI pathway: Loss of MMR protein function (tumor or germline) → increased mutation burden (MSI/hypermutation) → increased neoantigenicity → enhanced responsiveness to immune checkpoint blockade; clinically, this is reflected by substantially larger chemoimmunotherapy benefit in dMMR tumors versus pMMR in phase III trials. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3, tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8, eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7)
• p53-abnormal/copy-number high pathway: TP53 dysfunction and copy-number alterations → aggressive biology and poorer outcomes, motivating intensified systemic strategies and molecularly informed staging. (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 1-2, ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3, berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14)

6.2 Pathways and processes (suggested ontology mappings)

Evidence-supported pathway suggestions (to be mapped to GO/Reactome/KEGG IDs): - DNA mismatch repair (MMRd group) (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3) - PI3K/AKT signaling (common alterations in NSMP/copy-number low) (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3) - p53-mediated DNA damage response / cell-cycle control (p53abn group) (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

Suggested GO biological process terms (text-supported but not explicitly enumerated in sources): DNA repair; regulation of cell cycle; apoptotic signaling.

Suggested CL (cell types) and UBERON (anatomy) are in Section 7.

7. Anatomical Structures Affected

7.1 Organ and tissue level

• Primary: uterine corpus endometrium (endometrium of the uterus).
• Spread: clinically relevant metastatic patterns include pelvic/para-aortic lymph nodes and distant sites; orthotopic xenograft models recapitulate metastatic spread to clinically relevant locations. (yildiz2024murinexenograftmodels pages 10-12)

7.2 Cell types (CL suggestions)

• Endometrial glandular epithelial cells (carcinoma origin)
• Tumor-associated stromal fibroblasts (noting stromal replacement by murine stroma in xenografts) (yildiz2024murinexenograftmodels pages 5-6)
• Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (e.g., CD8+ T cells) in immunotherapy-responsive contexts (supported indirectly through immunotherapy responsiveness; detailed cell ontology mapping not provided in retrieved EC-specific texts).

7.3 Subcellular compartments (GO CC suggestions)

• Nucleus (DNA repair defects)
• Cytosol/cell membrane (signaling pathway dysregulation)

(Explicit GO cellular component IDs were not provided in the accessed texts.)

8. Temporal Development

8.1 Onset

• Rising incidence is documented both in premenopausal and postmenopausal groups in U.S. registry analyses, with particularly notable increases in ages 20–49 and ≥70 years. (guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 4-12)

8.2 Progression and staging

• Clinical course spans early-stage (often uterine-confined) through regional/distant spread.
• Modern staging has evolved to incorporate molecular markers for prognostic precision (FIGO 2023). (berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14)

9. Inheritance and Population

9.1 Epidemiology and disparities (recent registry analyses)

• U.S. incidence is increasing, with disproportionate increases among women of color in SEER-based analyses. In one analysis (2000–2019), early-onset (<50) average annual percent changes were highest in American Indian/Alaska Native women (4.8), followed by Black (3.3), Hispanic/Latina (3.1), and Asian/Pacific Islander women (2.4), with White women lowest (0.9). (rodriguez2025trendsinendometrial pages 1-2)
• Another U.S. registry analysis (2001–2021; hysterectomy-adjusted) reports incidence increases among ages 20–49 (86.8 to 113.8 per 1,000,000) and notes case-count declines in 2020 with an increased proportion of distant-stage cases consistent with pandemic-related diagnostic disruption. (guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 4-12)

9.2 Hereditary fraction

Lynch syndrome accounts for a minority of EC cases (estimated ~2–5% in a molecular pathology review), but tumor-level MMR deficiency is substantially more common and clinically actionable. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

10. Diagnostics

10.1 Symptom-triggered evaluation

Given the high prevalence of PMB among EC cases (91%), PMB is a key clinical trigger for diagnostic workup. (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2)

10.2 Imaging and endometrial thickness (ET) triage

Transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS) ET thresholds are widely used but have limitations: - A cohort study of women with bleeding found that ET alone did not always provide meaningful stratification for initial PMB presentations; in 593 PMB patients, EC prevalence was 7.9% and EIN 3.0%. (clarke2020riskassessmentof pages 1-2) - In Black individuals, a JAMA Oncology diagnostic study found that with a <5 mm ET triage threshold, 11.4% of EC cases would be missed; even at 4 mm the false-negative probability was 9.5%. The authors concluded ET triage is not reliable in this population and stated that with postmenopausal bleeding, tissue sampling (biopsy) is strongly recommended. (doll2024endometrialthicknessas pages 1-2) - Review evidence notes that persistent or recurrent bleeding warrants endometrial examination regardless of ET; it also notes a meaningful fraction (25–34%) of type II cancers may present with thin/unclear endometrial echo, limiting TVUS utility. (asaturova2024advancementsinminimally pages 2-4)

10.3 Tissue diagnosis and pathology

• Endometrial biopsy (e.g., pipelle) and/or hysteroscopy with histopathology remain central to diagnosis; recurrent PMB pathways often escalate to hysteroscopy. (ghoubara2018endometrialpathologyin pages 8-12)

10.4 Molecular pathology implementation

WHO-endorsed stepwise classification uses POLE sequencing → MMR IHC → p53 IHC to assign tumors to POLEmut, MMRd, p53abn, or NSMP. (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 5-6)

10.5 FIGO 2023 staging (molecular integration)

FIGO 2023 integrates molecular classification into staging and recommends complete molecular classification. (berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14) - In early stages, POLEmut and p53abn can modify stage (e.g., IAmPOLEmut; IICmp53abn), while MMRd and NSMP do not by themselves change stage. (berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14) - Empirical cohort (China, 547 patients): 26.9% experienced stage shifts under FIGO 2023; 63 FIGO 2009 stage I–II cases were reclassified as IAmPOLEmut and 53 as IICmp53abn. (yu2024clinicalapplicationof pages 1-2)

10.6 Differential diagnosis

Not systematically extractable from the accessed sources in this run; typical differentials include benign causes of abnormal bleeding (atrophy, polyps) and endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia.

11. Outcome / Prognosis

11.1 Prognostic stratification by molecular class

Molecular subgroup is prognostic: POLEmut is associated with excellent outcomes, p53abn with the worst outcomes, and MMRd/NSMP with intermediate outcomes. (kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 1-2, kuhn2024unsolvedissuesin pages 5-6)

11.2 Prognosis in key systemic-therapy settings

In advanced/recurrent settings, randomized trials show substantial improvements in progression-free survival for chemoimmunotherapy, especially in dMMR tumors (see Treatment section). (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8, eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7)

12. Treatment

12.1 Key concepts (current standard and rapidly evolving areas)

Systemic therapy is increasingly molecularly and biomarker guided, especially by MMR status and integrated TCGA/ProMisE class. The “front-line” (first-line) paradigm for advanced/recurrent disease has shifted toward adding PD-1/PD-L1 blockade to platinum-taxane chemotherapy based on 2023 NEJM phase III trials. (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8, eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7)

12.2 Surgery and radiation (standard of care backbone)

The retrieved sources primarily focused on systemic therapy; they nevertheless describe node-positive management as multimodal with systemic therapy with/without radiation and evolving integration of immunotherapy and IMRT approaches. (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8)

12.3 Systemic therapy: pivotal trials (2023–2024 prioritized)

12.3.1 Frontline chemoimmunotherapy

RUBY (dostarlimab + carboplatin/paclitaxel) (NEJM, Jun 2023; DOI URL in paper record) - dMMR/MSI-H subgroup: 24-month PFS 61.4% with dostarlimab vs 15.7% placebo; HR 0.28 (95% CI 0.16–0.50). (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8) - Overall population: 24-month PFS 36.1% vs 18.1%; HR 0.64; and 24-month OS 71.3% vs 56.0% (as reported in accessible summaries). (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 1-2) - Regulatory implementation: FDA approval of dostarlimab with carboplatin/paclitaxel followed by single-agent dostarlimab for primary/recurrent MMRd EC is reported as July 31, 2023. (tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 8-9)

NRG-GY018 (pembrolizumab + carboplatin/paclitaxel) (NEJM, Jun 2023; DOI URL in paper record) - dMMR cohort: 12-month freedom from progression/death 74% vs 38%; HR 0.30 (95% CI 0.19–0.48; P<0.001). (eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7) - pMMR cohort: median PFS 13.1 months vs 8.7 months; HR 0.54 (95% CI 0.41–0.71; P<0.001). (eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7)

12.3.2 Immunotherapy + PARP inhibition strategy

DUO-E (durvalumab + carboplatin/paclitaxel → maintenance durvalumab ± olaparib) (JCO, Jan 2024; DOI URL in paper record) - Review-reported primary results: ITT PFS HR 0.71 for durvalumab vs control and 0.55 for durvalumab+olaparib vs control; subgroup PFS benefit was observed in both dMMR and pMMR cohorts. (shim2024majorclinicalresearch pages 3-5)

12.3.3 Second-line / previously treated advanced disease (pMMR emphasis)

Study 309 / KEYNOTE-775 update (lenvatinib + pembrolizumab vs chemotherapy) (JCO, Jun 2023) - Updated efficacy: OS benefit in pMMR (HR 0.70) and all-comers (HR 0.65); PFS benefit in pMMR (HR 0.60) and all-comers (HR 0.56); ORR improved (pMMR 32.4% vs 15.1%; all-comers 33.8% vs 14.7%). (luvero2024oldissuesand pages 5-6)

12.4 Real-world implementation examples

• A multicenter retrospective study (Russia; pMMR/MSS recurrent/metastatic EC) reported median PFS 7.75 months and partial response 24% with lenvatinib+pembrolizumab; dose reductions occurred in 44%. (luvero2024oldissuesand pages 5-6)

12.5 Treatment ontology suggestions (MAXO; examples)

(Exact MAXO IDs not provided in accessed texts; suggested mappings) - Hysterectomy / surgical resection - External beam radiation therapy - Brachytherapy - Platinum-based chemotherapy (carboplatin) - Taxane chemotherapy (paclitaxel) - PD-1 inhibitor therapy (pembrolizumab, dostarlimab) - PD-L1 inhibitor therapy (durvalumab) - Multimodal chemoimmunotherapy - Tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapy (lenvatinib) - PARP inhibitor therapy (olaparib)

13. Prevention

13.1 Primary prevention

Obesity reduction is a major prevention lever given the strong contribution of obesity to EC burden in U.S. analyses. (guo2025trendsinendometrial pages 15-18)

13.2 Secondary prevention / early detection

No population-wide screening program is established in the retrieved sources; rather, symptom-triggered evaluation (particularly PMB) is central. PMB-focused strategies can potentially identify ~90% of EC cases because PMB prevalence among EC is ~91%, although most PMB presentations are not cancer. (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2)

13.3 High-risk hereditary prevention

The accessed corpus confirms Lynch syndrome relevance and emphasizes molecular tumor testing (MMR IHC/MSI) as a practical gateway to identify patients who may need genetic counseling/testing; however, detailed prophylaxis timing and guideline algorithms were not fully extractable here. (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 2-3)

14. Other Species / Natural Disease

No comparative veterinary natural-disease evidence was retrieved in the accessed documents for this run.

15. Model Organisms / Preclinical Models

15.1 Xenograft and PDX models

• Uterine corpus malignancy PDX establishment: 52 PDX models from 92 patient tumors (56.5% success) with similarity of pathology and gene profiles between primary and PDX tumors. (ueda2024consistencybetweenprimary pages 1-2)
• A xenograft-model review reports broad engraftment variability by histology and implantation method; limitations include murine stromal replacement, selection biases, and long timelines. (yildiz2024murinexenograftmodels pages 5-6)

15.2 Organoid-based models and organoid-derived xenografts

• Organoid-based patient-derived xenograft (O-PDX) mouse model (Frontiers in Oncology, May 2024) demonstrated that an MRI radiomics signature could predict response over time; reported AUCs increased from 0.38 (baseline) to 1.0 (endpoint) in the orthotopic cohort, with external validation AUC 0.85 at day 10/endpoint. (espedal2024mriradiomicscaptures pages 1-2)

15.3 Limitations noted by experts

Preclinical model limitations include long establishment times, incomplete immune microenvironment representation (especially in xenografts), and potential divergence over passages; therefore, continued development of immunocompetent or humanized models is highlighted as a major need. (yildiz2024murinexenograftmodels pages 5-6, yildiz2024murinexenograftmodels pages 17-19)

Expert synthesis (2023–2024 emphasis)

A convergent theme across 2023–2024 literature is that EC is no longer best conceptualized as a single disease entity; instead, integrated histo-molecular classification and FIGO 2023 staging are driving risk stratification and therapeutic personalization. The magnitude of benefit seen in dMMR tumors in frontline chemoimmunotherapy (e.g., NRG-GY018 and RUBY) provides clinical proof that mechanistic tumor features (MMR status) are predictive and actionable. (eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7, tubridy2024treatmentofnodepositive pages 7-8, berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14)

URLs and publication dates (examples of core sources used)

• Eskander RN et al. “Pembrolizumab plus Chemotherapy in Advanced Endometrial Cancer.” NEJM (Jun 2023). https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2302312 (eskander2023pembrolizumabpluschemotherapy pages 6-7)
• Mirza MR et al. “Dostarlimab for Primary Advanced or Recurrent Endometrial Cancer.” NEJM (Jun 2023). https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2216334 (ribeirosantos2024tailoringendometrialcancer pages 1-2)
• Westin SN et al. DUO-E trial report. JCO (Jan 2024). https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.23.02132 (westin2024durvalumabpluscarboplatinpaclitaxel pages 2-4)
• Makker V et al. KEYNOTE-775 update. JCO (Jun 2023). https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.22.02152 (luvero2024oldissuesand pages 5-6)
• Berek JS et al. “FIGO staging of endometrial cancer: 2023.” Int J Gynecol Obstet (Jun 2023). https://doi.org/10.1002/ijgo.14923 (berek2023figostagingof pages 12-14)
• Doll KM et al. Endometrial thickness triage in Black individuals. JAMA Oncology (Aug 2024). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2024.1891 (doll2024endometrialthicknessas pages 1-2)
• Clarke MA et al. PMB meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol Surv (Dec 2018). https://doi.org/10.1097/OGX.0000000000000623 (clarke2018associationofendometrial pages 1-2)

Notable evidence gaps in this run (for knowledge-base completion)

• Formal ICD/MeSH/MONDO identifiers were not found in the accessed full texts.
• Comprehensive, evidence-backed protective factors, environmental toxicants, differential diagnosis lists, and QoL instrument statistics were not retrievable from the current document set and require targeted retrieval.

References

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