Preeclampsia

◆

Subtypes

3

Early-onset preeclampsia (<34 weeks)

Preeclampsia with onset before 34 weeks of gestation. Strongly associated with defective placentation and more severe angiogenic imbalance. Associated with higher rates of maternal and fetal complications, intrauterine growth restriction, and features resembling atherosclerosis.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."

Distinguishes early-onset preeclampsia as having features of vascular pathology resembling atherosclerosis.

Late-onset preeclampsia (>=34 weeks)

Preeclampsia with onset at or after 34 weeks of gestation. The more common form, often associated with less severe placental pathology and thought to result from a mismatch between fetal metabolic demands and maternal cardiovascular supply capacity.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."

Characterizes late-onset preeclampsia as a metabolic crisis from demand-supply mismatch.

HELLP syndrome

Severe variant characterized by hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count. Represents the severe end of the preeclampsia spectrum and can occur with or without significant hypertension or proteinuria.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:34033373 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."

Identifies HELLP syndrome as a severe manifestation on the preeclampsia spectrum.

◈

Mechanistic Hypotheses

2

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model

early_onset_placenta_dominant CANONICAL Early-onset HELLP

Evidence balance 1 support

In early-onset preeclampsia, immune maladaptation at the maternal-fetal interface and defective trophoblast invasion produce severe placental malperfusion before clinical disease. Placental hypoxia and stress drive a marked antiangiogenic shift, especially excess sFlt-1 and soluble endoglin with reduced free PlGF, causing maternal endothelial dysfunction and organ-specific renal, hepatic, CNS, and uteroplacental manifestations.

The 2026 OpenScientist hypothesis-search report (kb/hypotheses/Preeclampsia/early_onset_placenta_dominant/openscientist.md) retained this model as strongly supported after reviewing 98 papers. It emphasized convergent support for the antiangiogenic cascade and KIR/HLA-C upstream trigger, while flagging three boundaries: late-onset disease is not primarily explained by this model, HELLP may include a parallel complement microangiopathy branch, and definitive Phase III interventional evidence for targeted sFlt-1 reduction is still missing.

Pathograph links

Immune Maladaptation at Maternal-Fetal Interface -> Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling Dysregulated dNK-KIR recognition of fetal trophoblast HLA-C can bias the decidua toward inadequate trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery transformation.

Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling -> Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release Placental ischemia from poor spiral artery remodeling triggers release of anti-angiogenic factors into the maternal circulation.

Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling -> NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade Placental ischemia and stress arising from defective trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery remodeling activate pattern recognition receptors and the NLRP3 inflammasome in placental and decidual immune cells.

Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release -> Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction Anti-angiogenic factors in the maternal circulation cause widespread endothelial injury and dysfunction.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade -> Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction NLRP3-derived inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-18) amplify endothelial activation and dysfunction, synergizing with anti-angiogenic factors to produce systemic inflammation and vascular injury.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria Systemic antiangiogenic endothelial injury targets glomerular capillaries, producing endotheliosis and proteinuria.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP Endothelial injury and prothrombotic inflammation can cause hepatic sinusoidal microthrombi, fibrin deposition, hepatocyte ischemia, and the HELLP phenotype.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia Cerebral endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular autoregulation can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, produce vasogenic edema or PRES, and precipitate eclamptic seizures.

Deep research

OpenScientist citations 30 citations 2026-06-03T09:56:04.435262

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."

Supports modeling early-onset preeclampsia separately from late-onset disease.

Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model

late_onset_maternal_constitutional ALTERNATIVE Late-onset

Evidence balance 1 support

In late-onset preeclampsia, placental stress and antiangiogenic imbalance can be milder, while maternal cardiovascular, metabolic, renal, or immune susceptibility lowers the threshold for systemic endothelial dysfunction as fetal and placental demands peak near term. This model explains cases with limited placental lesions but clinically important hypertension and end-organ dysfunction.

Pathograph links

Maternal Vascular Susceptibility Threshold -> Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction Maternal vascular, renal, and metabolic comorbidities lower the threshold for systemic endothelial dysfunction as late-pregnancy demand rises.

Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release -> Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction Anti-angiogenic factors in the maternal circulation cause widespread endothelial injury and dysfunction.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade -> Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction NLRP3-derived inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-18) amplify endothelial activation and dysfunction, synergizing with anti-angiogenic factors to produce systemic inflammation and vascular injury.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria Systemic antiangiogenic endothelial injury targets glomerular capillaries, producing endotheliosis and proteinuria.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP Endothelial injury and prothrombotic inflammation can cause hepatic sinusoidal microthrombi, fibrin deposition, hepatocyte ischemia, and the HELLP phenotype.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction -> Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia Cerebral endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular autoregulation can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, produce vasogenic edema or PRES, and precipitate eclamptic seizures.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."

Supports a late-onset model centered on maternal-fetal demand-supply mismatch.

?

Discussions and Knowledge Gaps

2

Which upstream trigger best explains each presentation of preeclampsia: decidual immune maladaptation, abnormal placentation, placental stress, complement/inflammatory injury, or maternal vascular susceptibility?

KNOWLEDGE GAP OPEN preeclampsia_upstream_trigger_heterogeneity

Attached to

pathophysiology#Immune Maladaptation at Maternal-Fetal Interface pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling pathophysiology#Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release pathophysiology#Maternal Vascular Susceptibility Threshold

The antiangiogenic endothelial dysfunction pathway is comparatively well supported, but the initiating biology is heterogeneous. Resolving whether early-onset and late-onset preeclampsia are dominated by distinct upstream triggers would improve subtype-specific biomarker interpretation, preventive trial design, and organ-risk prediction.

Added for monarch-initiative/dismech issue 3667. The OpenScientist hypothesis deep-research report for early_onset_placenta_dominant is available at kb/hypotheses/Preeclampsia/early_onset_placenta_dominant/openscientist.md; treat report-specific citation suggestions as literature leads requiring independent PMID and snippet verification before adding new evidence.

Does micro- and nanoplastic exposure contribute to human preeclampsia, or is the HIF-1alpha/TFRC trophoblast ferroptosis mechanism a property of the rat model that produced it?

HUMAN MODEL MISMATCH OPEN preeclampsia_microplastic_human_evidence_gap

Attached to

pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling environmental#Micro- and nanoplastic particle exposure

Every element of the microplastic-preeclampsia claim except the human endpoint is in place. Plastic particles are demonstrably present in human placental tissue; a rodent model reproduces the maternal syndrome and names an interventionally supported trophoblast mechanism. What no study has done is relate measured placental or maternal plastic burden to preeclampsia in people, and a 2024 systematic review found the human outcome literature essentially empty. The exposure is therefore modelled here with an explicit species caveat rather than as an established contributor. Note the two entries for plastic-derived chemistry in this file sit on opposite footings: the phthalate and bisphenol A entries have human risk estimates but no mechanism, while this one has a mechanism but no human endpoint. Neither gap is filled by the other.

Proposed experiments

Placental polymer burden and ferroptosis markers in preeclamptic versus normotensive placentas

preeclampsia_placental_polymer_burden_case_control

Quantify polymer burden by pyrolysis GC-MS in placentas from preeclamptic and normotensive pregnancies matched for gestational age and delivery mode, paired with the TFRC, iron-handling and lipid-peroxidation readouts the rat model identifies. Matching on gestational age matters because preeclamptic delivery is earlier, and burden may simply track exposure duration.

Would support

pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling

Supporting outcome

Higher polymer burden in preeclamptic placentas, accompanied by the predicted TFRC and lipid-peroxidation shift, in gestational-age-matched comparisons.

Refuting outcome

No burden difference after matching, or a burden difference without the predicted ferroptotic markers, which would place the rat mechanism outside human disease.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:38287142 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Cell culture and animal studies have demonstrated potential reproductive toxicity of these particles; however, their association with adverse fertility or pregnancy outcomes in humans is not known."

A systematic review stating the human outcome evidence is absent, which is precisely the mismatch this discussion records.

PMID:40414414 SUPPORT Model Organism

"These findings identified PS-MP-induced ferroptosis as a critical mechanism underlying placental dysfunction, highlighting PS-MP as a potential environmental risk factor for PE."

The model-side claim, stated by its authors as potential rather than established, which is the half of the picture that does exist.

⚙

Pathophysiology

10

Immune Maladaptation at Maternal-Fetal Interface

Decidual natural killer cells normally interact with fetal extravillous trophoblast HLA-C through maternal KIR receptors and help regulate placental development, trophoblast invasion, and spiral artery remodeling. In susceptible maternal-fetal genotype combinations, especially maternal KIR AA with fetal HLA-C2, excessive inhibitory signaling can reduce dNK activation and impair trophoblast invasion. This upstream immune maladaptation is modeled as an early-onset, placenta-dominant trigger rather than as the established antiangiogenic effector pathway itself.

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model

decidual natural killer cell CL:0002343 extravillous trophoblast CL:0008036

maternal-fetal immune tolerance GO:0002507 ↕ DYSREGULATED natural killer cell activation balance GO:0045954 ↕ DYSREGULATED

Downstream

Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling Dysregulated dNK-KIR recognition of fetal trophoblast HLA-C can bias the decidua toward inadequate trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery transformation.

Show evidence (3 references)

PMID:15477349 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"We have found that the combination of maternal KIR AA genotype with a fetal HLA-C2 is associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia."

Supports the KIR/HLA-C maternal-fetal genotype interaction as an upstream risk mechanism.

PMID:15477349 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"too much inhibition of uNK cells leading to poor trophoblast invasion into the uterine arteries."

Supports the proposed bridge from excessive inhibitory uterine NK signaling to poor trophoblast invasion.

PMID:32309433 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Decidual NK (dNK) cells significantly contribute to the vascular remodeling through the secretion of cytokines and angiogenic mediators in normal placental development."

Review evidence supports the role of decidual NK cells in normal placental vascular remodeling.

Maternal Vascular Susceptibility Threshold

Late-onset preeclampsia can be modeled as a threshold phenomenon in which near-term fetal and placental demands interact with maternal cardiovascular, renal, metabolic, or inflammatory susceptibility. In this model, placental antiangiogenic stress can be less severe than in early-onset disease, but maternal endothelial reserve is lower, so hypertension and end-organ dysfunction emerge when physiologic demand exceeds vascular supply.

Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model

blood vessel endothelial cell CL:0000071

endothelial cell activation GO:0042118 ↕ DYSREGULATED blood circulation GO:0008015 ↕ DYSREGULATED vasoconstriction GO:0042310 ↑ INCREASED

Downstream

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction Maternal vascular, renal, and metabolic comorbidities lower the threshold for systemic endothelial dysfunction as late-pregnancy demand rises.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:30792480 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Risk factors for the disease include maternal comorbidities, such as chronic kidney disease, hypertension and obesity"

Identifies maternal vascular, renal, and metabolic comorbidities that can reduce endothelial reserve.

PSG2-Mediated TGF-beta/Smad3 Activation

Placenta-derived pregnancy-specific beta-1-glycoprotein 2 (PSG2) is upregulated in preeclamptic placentas and activates the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway in extravillous trophoblasts. This placental-derived mechanism cell-autonomously suppresses trophoblast epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and downregulates matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2/MMP9), thereby reducing trophoblast proliferation, migration, and invasion capacity. This is distinct from the sEng-mediated inhibition of endothelial TGF-beta signaling modeled downstream in the maternal circulation.

extravillous trophoblast CL:0008036

PSG2 hgnc:9519

transforming growth factor beta receptor signaling pathway GO:0007179 ↑ INCREASED SMAD protein signal transduction GO:0060395 ↑ INCREASED

Downstream

Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling PSG2-activated TGF-β/Smad3 signaling suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metalloproteinase expression, reducing trophoblast invasiveness and contributing to defective spiral artery remodeling.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:42573986 SUPPORT In Vitro

"Highly expressed PSG2 in PE placentas contributes to PE pathogenesis by activating the TGF-β/Smad3 pathway, thereby inhibiting EMT and MMPs expression and attenuating trophoblast proliferation, migration, and invasion."

Establishes PSG2 upregulation in preeclamptic placentas as a mechanism activating TGF-β/Smad3 signaling.

Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling

In normal pregnancy, extravillous trophoblasts invade the uterine decidua and remodel maternal spiral arteries into high-capacitance, low-resistance vessels. In preeclampsia, this invasion is shallow and incomplete, resulting in narrow, high-resistance spiral arteries that fail to adequately perfuse the placenta. The resulting placental ischemia and hypoxia trigger downstream pathological cascades.

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model

extravillous trophoblast CL:0008036 decidual natural killer cell CL:0002343

placenta development GO:0001890 ↓ DECREASED vasculogenesis GO:0001570 ↓ DECREASED epithelial to mesenchymal transition GO:0001837 ↓ DECREASED

Downstream

Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release Placental ischemia from poor spiral artery remodeling triggers release of anti-angiogenic factors into the maternal circulation.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade Placental ischemia and stress arising from defective trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery remodeling activate pattern recognition receptors and the NLRP3 inflammasome in placental and decidual immune cells.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:39062815 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"PE is initiated by poor placentation due to inadequate trophoblast invasion and improper spiral artery remodeling, leading to placental hypoxia."

Directly describes the defective trophoblast invasion and spiral artery remodeling as the initiating event in preeclampsia.

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"a growing body of evidence suggests that products of an ischemic or a stressed placenta are responsible for the vascular changes that characterize this syndrome."

Supports the concept that placental ischemia (from defective remodeling) drives vascular pathology.

Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release

The ischemic placenta releases excess anti-angiogenic factors, primarily soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin (sEng), into the maternal circulation. sFlt-1 acts as a decoy receptor that sequesters VEGF and PlGF, while sEng inhibits TGF-beta signaling. Together, these factors create a systemic anti-angiogenic state that disrupts normal endothelial function. Levels of sFlt-1 rise and PlGF fall weeks before clinical onset.

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model

syncytiotrophoblast CL:0000525

VEGF receptor signaling pathway GO:0048010 ↓ DECREASED angiogenesis GO:0001525 ↓ DECREASED response to hypoxia GO:0001666

Downstream

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction Anti-angiogenic factors in the maternal circulation cause widespread endothelial injury and dysfunction.

Show evidence (6 references)

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"we confirm that placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1), an antagonist of VEGF and placental growth factor (PlGF), is upregulated in preeclampsia, leading to increased systemic levels of sFlt1 that fall after delivery."

Landmark paper demonstrating that placental sFlt-1 is upregulated in preeclampsia with systemic elevation.

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The sFlt-1 level increased beginning approximately five weeks before the onset of preeclampsia."

Shows that sFlt-1 rises weeks before clinical disease, consistent with placental release preceding symptoms.

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Increased levels of sFlt-1 and reduced levels of PlGF predict the subsequent development of preeclampsia."

Confirms the predictive anti-angiogenic imbalance pattern.

+ 3 more references

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade

Dysregulated NOD-like receptor (NLR) signaling, particularly NLRP3 inflammasome activation, contributes to placental and systemic inflammation in preeclampsia. Placental stress from ischemia and poor trophoblast invasion triggers pattern recognition receptors that activate the NLRP3 inflammasome complex (NLRP3, ASC, and pro-caspase-1). Active caspase-1 processes pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 into their mature, secreted forms, driving excessive IL-1β and IL-18 release from placental macrophages, trophoblasts, and maternal immune cells. This inflammasome-mediated inflammatory cascade amplifies oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and systemic inflammation, contributing to hypertension and multi-organ involvement in preeclampsia.

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model

placental macrophage CL:0000235 extravillous trophoblast CL:0008036 blood vessel endothelial cell CL:0000071

NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly GO:0044546 ↑ INCREASED interleukin-1 beta production GO:0032611 ↑ INCREASED inflammatory response GO:0006954 ↑ INCREASED response to oxidative stress GO:0006979 ↑ INCREASED

Downstream

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction NLRP3-derived inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-18) amplify endothelial activation and dysfunction, synergizing with anti-angiogenic factors to produce systemic inflammation and vascular injury.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:42269339 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"This review synthesizes the most recent data on NLRs in PE, focusing on their role in disease genesis, pathogenic processes, biomarker potential, and therapeutic consequences."

Comprehensive review documenting NLRP3 inflammasome role in preeclampsia genesis and pathogenesis.

Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction

The anti-angiogenic imbalance causes widespread maternal endothelial dysfunction, manifesting as vasoconstriction, increased vascular permeability, and activation of the coagulation cascade. This leads to the clinical features of hypertension, proteinuria (from glomerular endotheliosis), hepatic dysfunction, cerebral edema, and thrombocytopenia. The characteristic renal lesion is glomerular endotheliosis.

Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model

blood vessel endothelial cell CL:0000071 platelet CL:0000233

innate immune response GO:0045087 inflammatory response GO:0006954

Downstream

Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria Systemic antiangiogenic endothelial injury targets glomerular capillaries, producing endotheliosis and proteinuria.

Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP Endothelial injury and prothrombotic inflammation can cause hepatic sinusoidal microthrombi, fibrin deposition, hepatocyte ischemia, and the HELLP phenotype.

Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia Cerebral endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular autoregulation can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, produce vasogenic edema or PRES, and precipitate eclamptic seizures.

Show evidence (3 references)

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT Model Organism

"administration of sFlt1 to pregnant rats induces hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis, the classic lesion of preeclampsia."

Direct demonstration that sFlt-1 causes the clinical triad of hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis.

PMID:30792480 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Maternal endothelial dysfunction due to circulating factors of fetal origin from the placenta is a hallmark of pre-eclampsia."

Identifies endothelial dysfunction from placental factors as the hallmark of preeclampsia.

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT In Vitro

"sEng impairs binding of TGF-beta1 to its receptors and downstream signaling including effects on activation of eNOS and vasodilation, suggesting that sEng leads to dysregulated TGF-beta signaling in the vasculature."

Biochemical/cell-based evidence that sEng disrupts TGF-beta receptor binding and eNOS activation.

Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria

Antiangiogenic injury to glomerular endothelial cells disrupts the fenestrated filtration barrier, producing glomerular endotheliosis and proteinuria. This renal branch is the most direct organ-specific consequence of the sFlt-1/VEGF/PlGF imbalance.

glomerular endothelial cell CL:0002188

glomerular filtration GO:0003094 ↓ DECREASED endothelial cell activation GO:0042118 ↕ DYSREGULATED

Downstream

Proteinuria Glomerular endothelial swelling and filtration-barrier injury increase urinary protein loss.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT Model Organism

"administration of sFlt1 to pregnant rats induces hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis, the classic lesion of preeclampsia."

Demonstrates the renal lesion and proteinuria after sFlt-1 exposure in pregnant rats.

Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP

In severe preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome, systemic endothelial injury and inflammatory prothrombotic signaling can be amplified in hepatic sinusoids, where low shear favors microthrombi and fibrin deposition. Sinusoidal obstruction causes ischemic hepatocyte injury, elevated liver enzymes, platelet consumption, and microangiopathic hemolysis.

hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cell CL:1000398 platelet CL:0000233

blood coagulation GO:0007596 ↑ INCREASED endothelial cell activation GO:0042118 ↕ DYSREGULATED

Downstream

Thrombocytopenia Prothrombotic endothelial injury consumes platelets in the HELLP microangiopathy.

Hemolytic anemia Microangiopathic vascular injury fragments erythrocytes and produces hemolysis.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:31877439 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The dysfunctional placenta in women developing HELLP initiates a cascade of events that eventually results in liver dysfunction."

Places HELLP liver injury downstream of placental dysfunction.

PMID:31877439 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The latter causes ischemic damage and progressive demise of hepatocytes."

Supports ischemic hepatocyte injury downstream of sinusoidal obstruction.

Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia

Cerebral vascular dysfunction in preeclampsia can include impaired autoregulatory reserve, endothelial injury, blood-brain barrier disruption, and vasogenic edema. This branch connects systemic endothelial dysfunction to headache, visual symptoms, PRES-like edema, seizures, stroke, and eclampsia.

cerebral blood vessel endothelial cell CL:2000044

blood circulation GO:0008015 ↕ DYSREGULATED vasoconstriction GO:0042310 ↕ DYSREGULATED endothelial cell activation GO:0042118 ↕ DYSREGULATED

Downstream

Seizures (eclampsia) Cerebral edema and vascular dysfunction can precipitate eclamptic seizures.

Headache Cerebrovascular dysfunction contributes to severe headache in preeclampsia with severe features.

Visual disturbances PRES-like posterior cerebral involvement can produce visual symptoms.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:26126779 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Cerebrovascular dysfunction during preeclampsia can lead to cerebral edema, seizures, stroke, and potentially maternal mortality."

Directly links preeclampsia cerebrovascular dysfunction to acute neurologic complications.

PMID:26126779 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"PRES can be caused by an acute elevation in blood pressure that overcomes cerebral artery and arteriole vasoconstriction, resulting in a loss of CBF autoregulation, disruption to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and vasogenic edema formation"

Supports the autoregulatory failure, BBB disruption, and vasogenic edema mechanism for eclampsia/PRES-like manifestations.

⬡

Pathograph

Use the checkboxes to hide or show graph categories. Hover nodes for evidence and cross-linked metadata.

●

Phenotypes

10

Blood 2

Thrombocytopenia HP:0001873

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:34033373 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."

Human clinical anchor placing HELLP syndrome — of which thrombocytopenia is a defining component — on the preeclampsia spectrum.

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT Model Organism

"leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"

Rat sFlt1/sEng co-administration model reproduces the low-platelet component of HELLP. Model-organism support for the mechanism only; it is not the primary evidence for the human phenotype.

Hemolytic anemia HP:0001878

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:34033373 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."

Human clinical anchor placing HELLP — whose "H" is microangiopathic hemolysis — within the preeclampsia spectrum.

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT Model Organism

"leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"

Rat model reproduces the hemolysis component of HELLP; model-organism corroboration rather than primary human evidence.

Cardiovascular 1

Hypertension VERY_FREQUENT HP:0000822

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:34033373 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The parameters for initial identification of hypertension in the context of pregnancy-induced hypertension constituting the "mild range" are specifically defined as a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 140 mm Hg or more or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of 90 mm Hg or more on 2 occasions at least..."

Defines the diagnostic blood pressure criteria for preeclampsia.

PMID:32443079 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy constitute one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal mortality worldwide."

Establishes hypertensive disorders as a defining feature of the preeclampsia spectrum.

Eye 1

Visual disturbances Blurred vision HP:0000622

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:39247143 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Severe preeclampsia is defined as blood pressure (BP) >160/110 mmHg with warning signs such as headache, blurring of vision, and epigastric pain."

Explicitly identifies blurring of vision as a warning sign of severe preeclampsia.

Genitourinary 1

Proteinuria HP:0000093

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:30792480 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The disease presents with new-onset hypertension and often proteinuria in the mother, which can progress to multi-organ dysfunction, including hepatic, renal and cerebral disease, if the fetus and placenta are not delivered."

Identifies proteinuria as a frequent but not universal feature of preeclampsia.

Metabolism 2

Elevated hepatic transaminases Elevated circulating hepatic transaminase concentration HP:0002910

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:31877439 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The latter causes ischemic damage and progressive demise of hepatocytes."

Human literature review supports hepatocyte ischemic injury as the basis of the transaminase elevation seen in severe preeclampsia and HELLP.

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT Model Organism

"leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"

Rat model reproduces the elevated-liver-enzyme component of HELLP; model-organism corroboration rather than primary human evidence.

Pulmonary edema HP:0100598

Pulmonary edema is a recognized severe complication of preeclampsia, resulting from endothelial dysfunction, decreased oncotic pressure, and iatrogenic fluid overload. It is included in ACOG criteria for severe features of preeclampsia.

Nervous System 2

Seizures (eclampsia) HP:0001250

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:35177220 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"once thought to be a disease of the central nervous system, recognized by the occurrence of seizures (ie, eclampsia)"

Eclamptic seizures are the historically defining severe complication of preeclampsia.

Headache HP:0002315

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:39247143 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Severe preeclampsia is defined as blood pressure (BP) >160/110 mmHg with warning signs such as headache, blurring of vision, and epigastric pain."

Explicitly identifies headache as a warning sign of severe preeclampsia.

Growth 1

Intrauterine growth retardation HP:0001511

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Alterations in the levels of sFlt-1 and free PlGF were greater in women with an earlier onset of preeclampsia and in women in whom preeclampsia was associated with a small-for-gestational-age infant."

Links angiogenic factor alterations to small-for-gestational-age infants in preeclampsia.

🧬

Genetic Associations

4

FLT1 (Risk Factor (FLT1 polymorphisms) and source of the sFlt-1 effector)

Gene: FLT1 hgnc:3763 relationship_type: RISK_FACTOR

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:39062815 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Genetic and epigenetic modifications, including polymorphisms in the Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (FLT1) gene and altered microRNA (miRNA) expression, play critical roles."

Identifies FLT1 polymorphisms as playing a critical role in preeclampsia.

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"we confirm that placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1), an antagonist of VEGF and placental growth factor (PlGF), is upregulated in preeclampsia"

Demonstrates sFlt-1 (FLT1 gene product) upregulation in preeclamptic placentas.

PGF (Mechanistic effector (reduced free PlGF protein))

Gene: PGF hgnc:8893 relationship_type: BIOMARKER

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Increased levels of sFlt-1 and reduced levels of PlGF predict the subsequent development of preeclampsia."

PlGF reduction is a key predictive feature of preeclampsia.

ENG (Mechanistic effector (placenta-derived soluble endoglin))

Gene: ENG hgnc:3349 relationship_type: BIOMARKER

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT Model Organism

"Our results suggest that sEng may act in concert with sFlt1 to induce severe preeclampsia."

Demonstrates the pathogenic role of soluble endoglin (ENG gene product) in severe preeclampsia.

VEGFA (Mechanistic effector (free VEGF sequestered by sFlt-1))

Gene: VEGFA hgnc:12680 relationship_type: BIOMARKER

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"increased circulating sFlt1 in patients with preeclampsia is associated with decreased circulating levels of free VEGF and PlGF"

Human clinical data showing that sFlt-1 excess sequesters free VEGF in preeclampsia patients.

PMID:12618519 SUPPORT In Vitro

"resulting in endothelial dysfunction in vitro that can be rescued by exogenous VEGF and PlGF."

In vitro evidence that exogenous VEGF can rescue sFlt-1-induced endothelial dysfunction.

💊

Medical Actions

5

Delivery

Action: labor induction Ontology label: Induction of Labor NCIT:C92814

Delivery of the fetus and placenta is the only definitive treatment for preeclampsia. Timing depends on gestational age and severity, balancing maternal risk against fetal prematurity. Generally recommended at 37 weeks for preeclampsia without severe features, and earlier if severe features or maternal/fetal deterioration occurs.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:30792480 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"which can progress to multi-organ dysfunction, including hepatic, renal and cerebral disease, if the fetus and placenta are not delivered."

Identifies delivery as the necessary intervention to prevent progression.

Low-dose aspirin prophylaxis

Action: Pharmacotherapy NCIT:C15986

Agent: acetylsalicylic acid CHEBI:15365

Low-dose aspirin (150 mg daily) initiated at 11-14 weeks of gestation in women identified as high risk reduces the incidence of preterm preeclampsia by approximately 62%. This is a preventive intervention, not a treatment for established disease.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:28657417 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Preterm preeclampsia occurred in 13 participants (1.6%) in the aspirin group, as compared with 35 (4.3%) in the placebo group (odds ratio in the aspirin group, 0.38; 95% confidence interval, 0.20 to 0.74; P=0.004)."

The ASPRE trial demonstrated a 62% reduction in preterm preeclampsia with aspirin 150 mg daily.

PMID:37891152 SUPPORT Other

"In women with a history of vasculo-placental disease, low dose of aspirin (Strong recommendation, Quality of the evidence moderate) at a dosage of 100-160mg per day (Weak recommendation, Quality of the evidence low)"

The French College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists clinical practice guidelines make a Strong recommendation for low-dose aspirin in women with a history of vasculo-placental disease; the specific 100-160 mg per day dosage is graded only a Weak recommendation.

Magnesium sulfate for seizure prevention

Action: Pharmacotherapy NCIT:C15986

Agent: magnesium sulfate CHEBI:32599

Magnesium sulfate is the first-line agent for prevention and treatment of eclamptic seizures. It halves the risk of eclampsia in women with preeclampsia and probably reduces maternal mortality.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:12057549 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Women allocated magnesium sulphate had a 58% lower risk of eclampsia (95% CI 40-71) than those allocated placebo (40, 0.8%, vs 96, 1.9%; 11 fewer women with eclampsia per 1000 women)."

The Magpie trial demonstrated that magnesium sulfate halves eclampsia risk.

Antihypertensive therapy (labetalol)

Action: Pharmacotherapy NCIT:C15986

Agent: labetalol CHEBI:6343

Labetalol is a first-line antihypertensive for acute blood pressure management in severe preeclampsia, used to prevent hypertensive emergencies and stroke.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:39247143 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Nifedipine (C17H18N2O6), labetalol (C19H24N2O3), and hydralazine (C8H8N4) are commonly used drugs, and all are recommended as first-line agents."

Identifies labetalol as a recommended first-line agent for acute hypertensive management in pregnancy.

Antihypertensive therapy (nifedipine)

Action: Pharmacotherapy NCIT:C15986

Agent: nifedipine CHEBI:7565

Nifedipine is an alternative first-line oral antihypertensive for acute severe hypertension in preeclampsia.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:39247143 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"oral nifedipine has been proposed as a first-line alternative to intravenous labetalol."

Identifies nifedipine as a first-line alternative antihypertensive for severe preeclampsia.

🌍

Environmental Factors

3

Gestational phthalate exposure

Phthalate plasticisers are detected in the urine of nearly all pregnant women, and higher gestational concentrations track with a higher rate of preeclampsia. What the human data do not supply is a step: the association is with onset of the syndrome, not with any measured placental or endothelial intermediate, and the strongest series is a nested case-control sample of 50 cases drawn from a preterm-birth study rather than a preeclampsia cohort. A candidate mediator exists - phthalate metabolites track with circulating matrix metalloproteinases, the enzymes that execute spiral artery remodeling - but that was measured in a different cohort with no preeclampsia endpoint, so it supports plausibility rather than the chain.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:27177253 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Urinary concentrations of BPA and several phthalate metabolites were significantly associated with increased risk of preeclampsia."

Establishes the exposure-disease association in a longitudinally sampled pregnancy cohort, which is what makes phthalates an environmental factor for this entry.

Mechanism Target:

PREDISPOSES Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling — Drawn to the placental node because that is where preeclampsia risk is thought to be set, not because any step was demonstrated. The cited hazard ratios are for onset of the syndrome; nothing between exposure and trophoblast behaviour was measured. The intermediates are marked unknown deliberately - the matrix metalloproteinase finding below is the leading candidate, not an established link, and it points the opposite way from the MMP2/MMP9 suppression this file models as the invasion defect.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:27177253 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"We found consistent associations between DEHP metabolites and preeclampsia across pregnancy, with a potential heightened risk associated with concentrations later in pregnancy."

Quantifies the exposure-outcome relationship across gestation. PARTIAL because it establishes risk of the syndrome without evidence for the placental step this edge points at.

PMID:36113809 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"significant associations between mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and higher MMP1 by 7.86 % (95 % CI: 0.49, 15.76) and between mono oxononyl phthalate (MONP) and higher MMP2 by 8.30 % (95 % CI: 2.22, 14.75)"

Supplies the candidate mediator - phthalate exposure altering the matrix metalloproteinases that remodel spiral arteries. PARTIAL because this cohort measured circulating biomarkers, not preeclampsia or placental MMP expression, so the mediation is inferred rather than shown. The direction is also unresolved and is the most informative thing about this citation: the reported association is with *higher* MMP1 and MMP2, whereas this entry models defective trophoblast invasion as MMP2/MMP9 *suppression* (the PSG2 node). Whether a systemic rise in circulating metalloproteinases is compatible with local suppression at the invading trophoblast front is not addressed by either source.

PREDISPOSES Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release — The better-supported of the two phthalate edges, because here the outcome measured is this node itself rather than the syndrome. In the same birth cohort, oxidised DEHP metabolites tracked with falling placental growth factor and a rising sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio across gestation - the exact angiogenic imbalance this node describes. What remains unknown is the step between the plasticiser and the trophoblast that secretes these factors, so the intermediates stay marked unknown.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:25913709 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"oxidized di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites were associated with decreases in PlGF as well as increases in the sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio"

Measures the node's own output - PlGF and the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio - against exposure, which is what makes this edge land on a mechanism rather than on the diagnosis.

Gestational bisphenol A exposure

Bisphenol A, the polycarbonate and epoxy-resin monomer that shares a source pathway with phthalates, showed a comparable association with preeclampsia onset in the same cohort. It is curated as a distinct exposure because the two chemicals have different sources and different modes of action, and because BPA's obstetric evidence base is inconsistent across endpoints - the analogous meta-analysis for gestational diabetes is null. No mechanism exists at the level of the angiogenic factors that define the maternal syndrome, and that is where its single edge is drawn.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:27177253 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"an interquartile range increase of urinary concentrations of BPA (1.53; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.25) and MEP (monoethyl phthalate) (1.72; 95% CI: 1.28, 2.30) at 10 weeks gestation was associated with onset of preeclampsia"

Reports the BPA hazard ratio for preeclampsia onset with an early-gestation exposure window, which is the whole basis for listing BPA here.

Mechanism Target:

PREDISPOSES Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release — BPA tracked with higher circulating sFlt-1 and a higher sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio across gestation in the same cohort that produced its preeclampsia hazard ratio, which puts the exposure and this node in the same population rather than in two unrelated studies. It is still an association between a urinary exposure biomarker and a plasma factor, with no placental step measured.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:25913709 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"BPA, however, was associated with increased sFlt-1 as well as the sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio in both crude and adjusted models."

Associates BPA exposure with the anti-angiogenic shift this node names, which is the mechanism-level claim the hazard-ratio paper cannot make.

Micro- and nanoplastic particle exposure

Polystyrene microplastics reproduce a preeclampsia-like syndrome in pregnant rats - hypertension, proteinuria, and shifted angiogenic factor expression - through a defined trophoblast mechanism. There is no human counterpart: no study has related the plastic burden measurable in human placentas to preeclampsia risk, so this exposure rests entirely on a rodent model at experimental doses. Listed because the mechanism it names, ferroptotic trophoblast injury upstream of failed spiral artery remodeling, is testable in human tissue and would matter if it held; see the human-model mismatch discussion.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:40414414 SUPPORT Model Organism

"Pregnant rats were exposed to PS-MP, which induced PE-like symptoms including elevated blood pressure, increased proteinuria, and altered expression of angiogenic factors."

Establishes that the exposure produces the maternal syndrome in an animal model, which is the only outcome evidence this entry has.

Mechanism Target:

TRIGGERS Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling — The rodent chain runs from particle exposure through HIF-1alpha/TFRC activation to iron overload, oxidative stress and trophoblast ferroptosis, and lands on impaired trophoblast migration, invasion and angiogenesis - this node's content. Ferroptosis inhibition rescues those defects, which is what makes the intermediates known rather than assumed. The species and dose gap to human exposure is unaddressed.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:40414414 SUPPORT Model Organism

"PS-MP triggered ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells by activating the HIF-1α/TFRC axis, resulting in iron overload and oxidative stress"

Names the intermediate steps that make this an indirect edge with known mechanism rather than an unexplained association.

PMID:40414414 SUPPORT Model Organism

"PS-MP exposure impaired trophoblast migration, invasion, and angiogenesis; these effects were ameliorated by ferroptosis inhibition"

The rescue arm: blocking the proposed intermediate restores the trophoblast behaviour this node describes, tying the exposure to the node causally within the model.

🔬

Biochemical Markers

3

Elevated sFlt-1 (Elevated)

Context: diagnostic biomarker

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"At the onset of clinical disease, the mean serum level in the women with preeclampsia was 4382 pg per milliliter, as compared with 1643 pg per milliliter in controls with fetuses of similar gestational age (P<0.001)."

Quantifies the elevation of sFlt-1 in preeclampsia versus controls.

Decreased PlGF (Decreased)

Context: diagnostic biomarker

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:14764923 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The PlGF levels were significantly lower in the women who later had preeclampsia than in the controls beginning at 13 to 16 weeks of gestation (mean, 90 pg per milliliter vs. 142 pg per milliliter, P=0.01)"

Shows that PlGF depression begins early in the second trimester before clinical disease.

Elevated soluble endoglin (Elevated)

Context: diagnostic biomarker

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:16751767 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"We report a novel placenta-derived soluble TGF-beta coreceptor, endoglin (sEng), which is elevated in the sera of preeclamptic individuals, correlates with disease severity and falls after delivery."

Identifies elevated sEng as correlating with disease severity.

📈

Progression

1

Postpartum long-term cardiovascular risk

Age: Years to decades after affected pregnancy

A pregnancy affected by preeclampsia is followed by persistently elevated maternal vascular risk, including later hypertension, ischemic heart disease, stroke, cardiovascular death, and heart failure. This progression item records the long-term sequelae without assuming that acute pregnancy endothelial injury is the only cause; shared antecedent vascular susceptibility may also contribute.

Show evidence (2 references)

PMID:17975258 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"The relative risks (95% confidence intervals) for hypertension were 3.70 (2.70 to 5.05) after 14.1 years weighted mean follow-up, for ischaemic heart disease 2.16 (1.86 to 2.52) after 11.7 years, for stroke 1.81 (1.45 to 2.27) after 10.4 years"

Quantifies the long-term post-preeclampsia risks for hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and stroke.

PMID:28228456 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"Preeclampsia is associated with a 4-fold increase in future incident heart failure and a 2-fold increased risk in coronary heart disease, stroke, and death because of coronary heart or cardiovascular disease."

Confirms elevated future heart failure, coronary disease, stroke, and cardiovascular mortality risks.

📊

Prevalence

1

Pregnancies worldwide

Period Prevalence 2000.0–8000.0 per 100,000 >1 in 1,000

Proportion of pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia (2-8%), i.e. 2,000-8,000 per 100,000 pregnancies. Modeled as a period prevalence over the pregnancy episode rather than a population point prevalence.

Show evidence (1 reference)

PMID:32443079 SUPPORT Human Clinical

"It has been estimated that preeclampsia complicates 2-8% of pregnancies globally"

ACOG Practice Bulletin 222 provides the global 2-8% per-pregnancy estimate asserted in the entry description.

📊

Related Datasets

9

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1 and 3 mediate placental trophoblast leptin production in preeclampsia, inducing vascular dysfunction geo:GSE324111

Heightened soluble FMS-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) level is a hallmark of preeclampsia patients and induces a state of angiogenic imbalance by sequestering free vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PlGF). The receptors for VEGF and PlGF, membrane-bound VEGFR, are expressed in placental trophoblast cells, but their functions in this cell type are largely unknown. Placenta production of leptin significantly increases in preeclampsia, and we recently showed leptin induces placental and vascular endothelial dysfunction in pregnancy. We hypothesized that inappropriately high sFlt-1 in preeclampsia leads to an increase in trophoblast leptin production.

human BULK RNA SEQ n=6

PMID:42422950

Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.

Differences in miRNAs profile in pregnant women with preeclampsia compared with healthy pregnant women geo:GSE309563

Individualized outcome prediction classifiers were successfully constructed through expression profiling of a total of 800 human miRNAs in serum samples of 12 pregnant women (4 samples from severe preeclampsia pregnancies, 4 samples from mild preeclampsia pregnancies and 4 samples from healthy pregnancies)

human MICROARRAY n=12

PMID:42135755

Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.

Racial discrepancies in placental gene expressions between Black and White healthy and preeclampsia patients of equivalent BMI and blood pressure in a Southeastern USA cohort geo:GSE303840

Preeclampsia is a devastating hypertensive disorder of pregnancy that afflicts between 5-10% of pregnancies in the US, with a higher prevalence in the southern regions of the United States. Black pregnant women are disproportionally at higher risk for preeclampsia onset and severity of disease than other racial groups, including White women. Although this has been recognized in the maternal fetal medicine literature for many years, the underlying mechanism(s) for this racial disparity are unclear. One confounding issue with many studies of racial discrepancies in pregnant women is differences in comorbidities between racial groups.

human BULK RNA SEQ n=24

Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.

Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: Whole Genome Sequencing of 100 unrelated Uzbeks (DNA samples from the Institute of Immunology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Republic Specialized Scientific Practical Medical Centre of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tashkent, Uzbekistan) ega:EGAS00001000416

Preeclampsia (PE) is a syndrome affecting pregnant mothers and fetus/babies characterised by hypertension and proteinuria, and is a leading cause of maternal and fetal death and of premature births worldwide. The InterPregGen Consortium was funded by a European Framework 7 (FP7) grant and grew out of the WTCCC3 GWAS comparing ~2000 UK PE mothers with ~6000 common UK controls.

human

PMID:33239696

European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study's own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.

Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: Whole Genome Sequencing of 100 unrelated Kazakhs (DNA samples from the Scientific Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Gulnara Svyatova, Principal Investigator ega:EGAS00001000417

Preeclampsia (PE) is a syndrome affecting pregnant mothers and fetus/babies characterised by hypertension and proteinuria, and is a leading cause of maternal and fetal death and of premature births worldwide. The InterPregGen Consortium was funded by a European Framework 7 (FP7) grant and grew out of the WTCCC3 GWAS comparing ~2000 UK PE mothers with ~6000 common UK controls.

human

PMID:33239696

European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study's own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.

Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: GWAS meta-analysis summary statistics for European fetal preeclampsia cases versus controls and GWAS genotype data for European fetal preeclampsia cases ega:EGAS00001001048

human

PMID:28628106

European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study's own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.

Maternal blood lipidomics associated with severe preeclampsia metabolomics_workbench:ST001360

Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from metabolomics_workbench. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.

Integrative Exposomic, Transcriptomic, Epigenomic Analyses of Human Placental Samples Links Understudied Chemicals to Preeclampsia metabolomics_workbench:ST002151

Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from metabolomics_workbench. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.

Molecular Signatures of Preeclampsia and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Utilizing Multi-Omics Analyses, Part 2 massive:MSV000085361

The application of multi-omic evaluations, multi-dimensional analysis methods, and new cheminformatics-based visualization tools to provide an in depth understanding of the molecular changes taking place in preeclampsia (PRE) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) patients. Since PRE and GDM are two prevalent pregnancy complications that result in adverse health effects for both the mother and fetus during pregnancy and later in life, a better understanding of each is essential.

Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from massive. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.

{ }

Source YAML

click to show

name: Preeclampsia
creation_date: "2026-05-13T00:00:00Z"
category: Complex
synonyms:
- Pre-eclampsia
- Toxemia of pregnancy
- Pregnancy-induced hypertension with proteinuria
description: >
  Preeclampsia is a multisystemic pregnancy disorder characterized by new-onset
  hypertension and often proteinuria after 20 weeks of gestation, which can
  progress to multi-organ dysfunction including hepatic, renal, and cerebral
  disease. It complicates 2-8% of pregnancies globally and is a leading cause
  of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. The pathophysiology involves
  defective trophoblast invasion and spiral artery remodeling leading to placental
  ischemia, followed by release of anti-angiogenic factors (sFlt-1, soluble
  endoglin) that cause widespread maternal endothelial dysfunction. The only
  definitive treatment is delivery of the fetus and placenta.
disease_term:
  preferred_term: preeclampsia
  term:
    id: MONDO:0005081
    label: preeclampsia
parents:
- Hypertensive disorder of pregnancy
- Placental disease
has_subtypes:
- name: Early-onset
  display_name: Early-onset preeclampsia (<34 weeks)
  description: >
    Preeclampsia with onset before 34 weeks of gestation. Strongly associated
    with defective placentation and more severe angiogenic imbalance. Associated
    with higher rates of maternal and fetal complications, intrauterine growth
    restriction, and features resembling atherosclerosis.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."
    explanation: Distinguishes early-onset preeclampsia as having features of vascular pathology resembling atherosclerosis.
- name: Late-onset
  display_name: Late-onset preeclampsia (>=34 weeks)
  description: >
    Preeclampsia with onset at or after 34 weeks of gestation. The more common
    form, often associated with less severe placental pathology and thought to
    result from a mismatch between fetal metabolic demands and maternal
    cardiovascular supply capacity.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."
    explanation: Characterizes late-onset preeclampsia as a metabolic crisis from demand-supply mismatch.
- name: HELLP
  display_name: HELLP syndrome
  description: >
    Severe variant characterized by hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low
    platelet count. Represents the severe end of the preeclampsia spectrum and
    can occur with or without significant hypertension or proteinuria.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:34033373
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."
    explanation: Identifies HELLP syndrome as a severe manifestation on the preeclampsia spectrum.
prevalence:
- population: Pregnancies worldwide
  measure_type: PERIOD_PREVALENCE
  prevalence_class: ABOVE_1_IN_1000
  rate_low: 2000.0
  rate_high: 8000.0
  notes: >-
    Proportion of pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia (2-8%), i.e. 2,000-8,000
    per 100,000 pregnancies. Modeled as a period prevalence over the pregnancy
    episode rather than a population point prevalence.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:32443079
    reference_title: "Gestational Hypertension and Preeclampsia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 222."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "It has been estimated that preeclampsia complicates 2-8% of pregnancies globally"
    explanation: ACOG Practice Bulletin 222 provides the global 2-8% per-pregnancy estimate asserted in the entry description.
progression:
- phase: Postpartum long-term cardiovascular risk
  age_range: Years to decades after affected pregnancy
  notes: >
    A pregnancy affected by preeclampsia is followed by persistently elevated
    maternal vascular risk, including later hypertension, ischemic heart
    disease, stroke, cardiovascular death, and heart failure. This progression
    item records the long-term sequelae without assuming that acute pregnancy
    endothelial injury is the only cause; shared antecedent vascular
    susceptibility may also contribute.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:17975258
    reference_title: "Pre-eclampsia and risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The relative risks (95% confidence intervals) for hypertension were 3.70 (2.70 to 5.05) after 14.1 years weighted mean follow-up, for ischaemic heart disease 2.16 (1.86 to 2.52) after 11.7 years, for stroke 1.81 (1.45 to 2.27) after 10.4 years"
    explanation: Quantifies the long-term post-preeclampsia risks for hypertension, ischemic heart disease, and stroke.
  - reference: PMID:28228456
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and Future Cardiovascular Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Preeclampsia is associated with a 4-fold increase in future incident heart failure and a 2-fold increased risk in coronary heart disease, stroke, and death because of coronary heart or cardiovascular disease."
    explanation: Confirms elevated future heart failure, coronary disease, stroke, and cardiovascular mortality risks.
mechanistic_hypotheses:
- hypothesis_group_id: early_onset_placenta_dominant
  hypothesis_label: Early-Onset Placenta-Dominant Antiangiogenic Model
  status: CANONICAL
  applies_to_subtypes:
  - Early-onset
  - HELLP
  description: >
    In early-onset preeclampsia, immune maladaptation at the maternal-fetal
    interface and defective trophoblast invasion produce severe placental
    malperfusion before clinical disease. Placental hypoxia and stress drive a
    marked antiangiogenic shift, especially excess sFlt-1 and soluble endoglin
    with reduced free PlGF, causing maternal endothelial dysfunction and
    organ-specific renal, hepatic, CNS, and uteroplacental manifestations.
  notes: >
    The 2026 OpenScientist hypothesis-search report
    (kb/hypotheses/Preeclampsia/early_onset_placenta_dominant/openscientist.md)
    retained this model as strongly supported after reviewing 98 papers. It
    emphasized convergent support for the antiangiogenic cascade and KIR/HLA-C
    upstream trigger, while flagging three boundaries: late-onset disease is not
    primarily explained by this model, HELLP may include a parallel complement
    microangiopathy branch, and definitive Phase III interventional evidence for
    targeted sFlt-1 reduction is still missing.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."
    explanation: Supports modeling early-onset preeclampsia separately from late-onset disease.
- hypothesis_group_id: late_onset_maternal_constitutional
  hypothesis_label: Late-Onset Maternal Constitutional Threshold Model
  status: ALTERNATIVE
  applies_to_subtypes:
  - Late-onset
  description: >
    In late-onset preeclampsia, placental stress and antiangiogenic imbalance
    can be milder, while maternal cardiovascular, metabolic, renal, or immune
    susceptibility lowers the threshold for systemic endothelial dysfunction
    as fetal and placental demands peak near term. This model explains cases
    with limited placental lesions but clinically important hypertension and
    end-organ dysfunction.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."
    explanation: Supports a late-onset model centered on maternal-fetal demand-supply mismatch.
pathophysiology:
- name: Immune Maladaptation at Maternal-Fetal Interface
  description: >
    Decidual natural killer cells normally interact with fetal extravillous
    trophoblast HLA-C through maternal KIR receptors and help regulate
    placental development, trophoblast invasion, and spiral artery remodeling.
    In susceptible maternal-fetal genotype combinations, especially maternal
    KIR AA with fetal HLA-C2, excessive inhibitory signaling can reduce dNK
    activation and impair trophoblast invasion. This upstream immune
    maladaptation is modeled as an early-onset, placenta-dominant trigger
    rather than as the established antiangiogenic effector pathway itself.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: decidual natural killer cell
    term:
      id: CL:0002343
      label: decidual natural killer cell, human
  - preferred_term: extravillous trophoblast
    term:
      id: CL:0008036
      label: extravillous trophoblast
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: maternal-fetal immune tolerance
    term:
      id: GO:0002507
      label: tolerance induction
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  - preferred_term: natural killer cell activation balance
    term:
      id: GO:0045954
      label: positive regulation of natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  downstream:
  - target: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
    description: Dysregulated dNK-KIR recognition of fetal trophoblast HLA-C can bias the decidua toward inadequate trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery transformation.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:15477349
      reference_title: "Combinations of maternal KIR and fetal HLA-C genes influence the risk of preeclampsia and reproductive success."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Overall, the conclusion is that the interaction between maternal KIR on uNK cells and fetal HLA class I molecules on trophoblast has a physiological function in regulating the development of the placenta"
      explanation: Places maternal KIR and fetal trophoblast HLA interactions upstream of placental development.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:15477349
    reference_title: "Combinations of maternal KIR and fetal HLA-C genes influence the risk of preeclampsia and reproductive success."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "We have found that the combination of maternal KIR AA genotype with a fetal HLA-C2 is associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia."
    explanation: Supports the KIR/HLA-C maternal-fetal genotype interaction as an upstream risk mechanism.
  - reference: PMID:15477349
    reference_title: "Combinations of maternal KIR and fetal HLA-C genes influence the risk of preeclampsia and reproductive success."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "too much inhibition of uNK cells leading to poor trophoblast invasion into the uterine arteries."
    explanation: Supports the proposed bridge from excessive inhibitory uterine NK signaling to poor trophoblast invasion.
  - reference: PMID:32309433
    reference_title: "The Roles of Uterine Natural Killer (NK) Cells and KIR/HLA-C Combination in the Development of Preeclampsia: A Systematic Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Decidual NK (dNK) cells significantly contribute to the vascular remodeling through the secretion of cytokines and angiogenic mediators in normal placental development."
    explanation: Review evidence supports the role of decidual NK cells in normal placental vascular remodeling.
- name: Maternal Vascular Susceptibility Threshold
  description: >
    Late-onset preeclampsia can be modeled as a threshold phenomenon in which
    near-term fetal and placental demands interact with maternal cardiovascular,
    renal, metabolic, or inflammatory susceptibility. In this model, placental
    antiangiogenic stress can be less severe than in early-onset disease, but
    maternal endothelial reserve is lower, so hypertension and end-organ
    dysfunction emerge when physiologic demand exceeds vascular supply.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: blood vessel endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:0000071
      label: blood vessel endothelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: endothelial cell activation
    term:
      id: GO:0042118
      label: endothelial cell activation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  - preferred_term: blood circulation
    term:
      id: GO:0008015
      label: blood circulation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  - preferred_term: vasoconstriction
    term:
      id: GO:0042310
      label: vasoconstriction
    modifier: INCREASED
  downstream:
  - target: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction
    description: Maternal vascular, renal, and metabolic comorbidities lower the threshold for systemic endothelial dysfunction as late-pregnancy demand rises.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:35177220
      reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Early-onset preeclampsia has many features in common with atherosclerosis, whereas late-onset preeclampsia seems to result from a mismatch of fetal demands and maternal supply, that is, a metabolic crisis."
      explanation: Supports linking late-onset disease to a maternal demand-supply threshold model.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30792480
    reference_title: "Pre-eclampsia: pathogenesis, novel diagnostics and therapies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Risk factors for the disease include maternal comorbidities, such as chronic kidney disease, hypertension and obesity"
    explanation: Identifies maternal vascular, renal, and metabolic comorbidities that can reduce endothelial reserve.
- name: PSG2-Mediated TGF-beta/Smad3 Activation
  biological_scale: MOLECULAR
  description: >
    Placenta-derived pregnancy-specific beta-1-glycoprotein 2 (PSG2) is upregulated
    in preeclamptic placentas and activates the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway in
    extravillous trophoblasts. This placental-derived mechanism cell-autonomously
    suppresses trophoblast epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and
    downregulates matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2/MMP9), thereby reducing
    trophoblast proliferation, migration, and invasion capacity. This is distinct
    from the sEng-mediated inhibition of endothelial TGF-beta signaling modeled
    downstream in the maternal circulation.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: extravillous trophoblast
    term:
      id: CL:0008036
      label: extravillous trophoblast
  genes:
  - preferred_term: PSG2
    term:
      id: hgnc:9519
      label: PSG2
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: transforming growth factor beta receptor signaling pathway
    term:
      id: GO:0007179
      label: transforming growth factor beta receptor signaling pathway
    modifier: INCREASED
  - preferred_term: SMAD protein signal transduction
    term:
      id: GO:0060395
      label: SMAD protein signal transduction
    modifier: INCREASED
  downstream:
  - target: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
    description: PSG2-activated TGF-β/Smad3 signaling suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metalloproteinase expression, reducing trophoblast invasiveness and contributing to defective spiral artery remodeling.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:42573986
      reference_title: "PSG2 Impairs Human Trophoblast Function in Preeclampsia by Activating TGF-β/Smad3 to Suppress EMT and MMP2/9 Expression."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Mechanistically, PSG2 activated the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway, and the TGFBR1 inhibitor SB431542 effectively reversed PSG2-mediated inhibition of EMT, MMP2/MMP9 expression, and trophoblast functional impairment."
      explanation: Directly demonstrates PSG2-TGF-β/Smad3 activation suppresses EMT and MMPs, impairing trophoblast function.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:42573986
    reference_title: "PSG2 Impairs Human Trophoblast Function in Preeclampsia by Activating TGF-β/Smad3 to Suppress EMT and MMP2/9 Expression."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Highly expressed PSG2 in PE placentas contributes to PE pathogenesis by activating the TGF-β/Smad3 pathway, thereby inhibiting EMT and MMPs expression and attenuating trophoblast proliferation, migration, and invasion."
    explanation: Establishes PSG2 upregulation in preeclamptic placentas as a mechanism activating TGF-β/Smad3 signaling.
- name: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
  description: >
    In normal pregnancy, extravillous trophoblasts invade the uterine decidua
    and remodel maternal spiral arteries into high-capacitance, low-resistance
    vessels. In preeclampsia, this invasion is shallow and incomplete, resulting
    in narrow, high-resistance spiral arteries that fail to adequately perfuse
    the placenta. The resulting placental ischemia and hypoxia trigger downstream
    pathological cascades.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: extravillous trophoblast
    term:
      id: CL:0008036
      label: extravillous trophoblast
  - preferred_term: decidual natural killer cell
    term:
      id: CL:0002343
      label: decidual natural killer cell, human
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: placenta development
    term:
      id: GO:0001890
      label: placenta development
    modifier: DECREASED
  - preferred_term: vasculogenesis
    term:
      id: GO:0001570
      label: vasculogenesis
    modifier: DECREASED
  - preferred_term: epithelial to mesenchymal transition
    term:
      id: GO:0001837
      label: epithelial to mesenchymal transition
    modifier: DECREASED
  downstream:
  - target: Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release
    description: Placental ischemia from poor spiral artery remodeling triggers release of anti-angiogenic factors into the maternal circulation.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:39062815
      reference_title: "A Narrative Review on the Pathophysiology of Preeclampsia."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "PE is initiated by poor placentation due to inadequate trophoblast invasion and improper spiral artery remodeling, leading to placental hypoxia. This triggers the release of anti-angiogenic factors such as soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin (sEng), causing widespread endothelial dysfunction and systemic inflammation."
      explanation: Directly describes the causal chain from defective trophoblast invasion through placental hypoxia to anti-angiogenic factor release.
  - target: NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade
    description: Placental ischemia and stress arising from defective trophoblast invasion and poor spiral artery remodeling activate pattern recognition receptors and the NLRP3 inflammasome in placental and decidual immune cells.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:42269339
      reference_title: "NLRs and preeclampsia: Advances in etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic targeting, highlighting NLRP3."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Key characteristics of PE include dysregulated NLR activity, excessive inflammation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and impaired trophoblast invasion."
      explanation: Links impaired trophoblast invasion and dysregulated NLR (NLRP3) activity as co-occurring core features of preeclampsia, supporting placental invasion failure upstream of inflammasome activation.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39062815
    reference_title: "A Narrative Review on the Pathophysiology of Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "PE is initiated by poor placentation due to inadequate trophoblast invasion and improper spiral artery remodeling, leading to placental hypoxia."
    explanation: Directly describes the defective trophoblast invasion and spiral artery remodeling as the initiating event in preeclampsia.
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a growing body of evidence suggests that products of an ischemic or a stressed placenta are responsible for the vascular changes that characterize this syndrome."
    explanation: Supports the concept that placental ischemia (from defective remodeling) drives vascular pathology.
- name: Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release
  description: >
    The ischemic placenta releases excess anti-angiogenic factors, primarily
    soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin (sEng),
    into the maternal circulation. sFlt-1 acts as a decoy receptor that
    sequesters VEGF and PlGF, while sEng inhibits TGF-beta signaling. Together,
    these factors create a systemic anti-angiogenic state that disrupts normal
    endothelial function. Levels of sFlt-1 rise and PlGF fall weeks before
    clinical onset.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: syncytiotrophoblast
    term:
      id: CL:0000525
      label: syncytiotrophoblast cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: VEGF receptor signaling pathway
    term:
      id: GO:0048010
      label: vascular endothelial growth factor receptor signaling pathway
    modifier: DECREASED
  - preferred_term: angiogenesis
    term:
      id: GO:0001525
      label: angiogenesis
    modifier: DECREASED
  - preferred_term: response to hypoxia
    term:
      id: GO:0001666
      label: response to hypoxia
  downstream:
  - target: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction
    description: Anti-angiogenic factors in the maternal circulation cause widespread endothelial injury and dysfunction.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:12618519
      reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "increased circulating sFlt1 in patients with preeclampsia is associated with decreased circulating levels of free VEGF and PlGF"
      explanation: Human clinical observation showing sFlt-1 elevation associates with decreased free VEGF and PlGF.
    - reference: PMID:12618519
      reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "resulting in endothelial dysfunction in vitro that can be rescued by exogenous VEGF and PlGF."
      explanation: In vitro demonstration that endothelial dysfunction from sFlt-1 excess is reversible with VEGF/PlGF.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "we confirm that placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1), an antagonist of VEGF and placental growth factor (PlGF), is upregulated in preeclampsia, leading to increased systemic levels of sFlt1 that fall after delivery."
    explanation: Landmark paper demonstrating that placental sFlt-1 is upregulated in preeclampsia with systemic elevation.
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The sFlt-1 level increased beginning approximately five weeks before the onset of preeclampsia."
    explanation: Shows that sFlt-1 rises weeks before clinical disease, consistent with placental release preceding symptoms.
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Increased levels of sFlt-1 and reduced levels of PlGF predict the subsequent development of preeclampsia."
    explanation: Confirms the predictive anti-angiogenic imbalance pattern.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "sEng inhibits formation of capillary tubes in vitro"
    explanation: In vitro evidence that soluble endoglin has anti-angiogenic effects.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "Its effects in pregnant rats are amplified by coadministration of sFlt1, leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome and restriction of fetal growth."
    explanation: Rat model demonstrates that sEng synergizes with sFlt-1 to produce severe preeclampsia including HELLP syndrome.
  - reference: PMID:39062815
    reference_title: "A Narrative Review on the Pathophysiology of Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "This triggers the release of anti-angiogenic factors such as soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) and soluble endoglin (sEng), causing widespread endothelial dysfunction and systemic inflammation."
    explanation: Summarizes the anti-angiogenic cascade from placental hypoxia to endothelial dysfunction.
- name: NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Inflammatory Cascade
  description: >
    Dysregulated NOD-like receptor (NLR) signaling, particularly NLRP3 inflammasome
    activation, contributes to placental and systemic inflammation in preeclampsia.
    Placental stress from ischemia and poor trophoblast invasion triggers pattern
    recognition receptors that activate the NLRP3 inflammasome complex (NLRP3,
    ASC, and pro-caspase-1). Active caspase-1 processes pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18
    into their mature, secreted forms, driving excessive IL-1β and IL-18 release
    from placental macrophages, trophoblasts, and maternal immune cells. This
    inflammasome-mediated inflammatory cascade amplifies oxidative stress,
    endothelial dysfunction, and systemic inflammation, contributing to hypertension
    and multi-organ involvement in preeclampsia.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: placental macrophage
    term:
      id: CL:0000235
      label: macrophage
  - preferred_term: extravillous trophoblast
    term:
      id: CL:0008036
      label: extravillous trophoblast
  - preferred_term: blood vessel endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:0000071
      label: blood vessel endothelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly
    term:
      id: GO:0044546
      label: NLRP3 inflammasome complex assembly
    modifier: INCREASED
  - preferred_term: interleukin-1 beta production
    term:
      id: GO:0032611
      label: interleukin-1 beta production
    modifier: INCREASED
  - preferred_term: inflammatory response
    term:
      id: GO:0006954
      label: inflammatory response
    modifier: INCREASED
  - preferred_term: response to oxidative stress
    term:
      id: GO:0006979
      label: response to oxidative stress
    modifier: INCREASED
  downstream:
  - target: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction
    description: NLRP3-derived inflammatory mediators (IL-1β, IL-18) amplify endothelial activation and dysfunction, synergizing with anti-angiogenic factors to produce systemic inflammation and vascular injury.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:42269339
      reference_title: "NLRs and preeclampsia: Advances in etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic targeting, highlighting NLRP3."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Recent studies underscore the important contribution of NOD-like receptors (NLRs), particularly the NLRP3 inflammasome, to PE development."
      explanation: Directly establishes NLRP3 inflammasome as a key contributor to preeclampsia development.
    - reference: PMID:42269339
      reference_title: "NLRs and preeclampsia: Advances in etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic targeting, highlighting NLRP3."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Key characteristics of PE include dysregulated NLR activity, excessive inflammation, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and impaired trophoblast invasion."
      explanation: Links dysregulated NLRs to excessive inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction—the hallmarks of preeclampsia pathophysiology.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:42269339
    reference_title: "NLRs and preeclampsia: Advances in etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic targeting, highlighting NLRP3."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "This review synthesizes the most recent data on NLRs in PE, focusing on their role in disease genesis, pathogenic processes, biomarker potential, and therapeutic consequences."
    explanation: Comprehensive review documenting NLRP3 inflammasome role in preeclampsia genesis and pathogenesis.
- name: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction
  description: >
    The anti-angiogenic imbalance causes widespread maternal endothelial
    dysfunction, manifesting as vasoconstriction, increased vascular
    permeability, and activation of the coagulation cascade. This leads to
    the clinical features of hypertension, proteinuria (from glomerular
    endotheliosis), hepatic dysfunction, cerebral edema, and
    thrombocytopenia. The characteristic renal lesion is glomerular
    endotheliosis.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: blood vessel endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:0000071
      label: blood vessel endothelial cell
  - preferred_term: platelet
    term:
      id: CL:0000233
      label: platelet
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: innate immune response
    term:
      id: GO:0045087
      label: innate immune response
  - preferred_term: inflammatory response
    term:
      id: GO:0006954
      label: inflammatory response
  downstream:
  - target: Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria
    description: Systemic antiangiogenic endothelial injury targets glomerular capillaries, producing endotheliosis and proteinuria.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:12618519
      reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
      snippet: "administration of sFlt1 to pregnant rats induces hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis, the classic lesion of preeclampsia."
      explanation: Directly links sFlt-1-driven endothelial dysfunction to the renal lesion and proteinuria.
  - target: Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP
    description: Endothelial injury and prothrombotic inflammation can cause hepatic sinusoidal microthrombi, fibrin deposition, hepatocyte ischemia, and the HELLP phenotype.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:31877439
      reference_title: "The role of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction in the pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement in HELLP syndrome: Exploring the literature."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Particularly in microcirculations with extremely low shear forces, such as in the hepatic sinusoids, this will facilitate microthrombi formation and fibrin deposition eventually resulting in obstruction of the sinusoids similar as in SOS."
      explanation: Supports the liver-specific endothelial microvascular mechanism for HELLP-related hepatic injury.
  - target: Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia
    description: Cerebral endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular autoregulation can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, produce vasogenic edema or PRES, and precipitate eclamptic seizures.
    hypothesis_groups:
    - early_onset_placenta_dominant
    - late_onset_maternal_constitutional
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:26126779
      reference_title: "Cerebrovascular Dysfunction in Preeclamptic Pregnancies."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "Cerebrovascular dysfunction during preeclampsia can lead to cerebral edema, seizures, stroke, and potentially maternal mortality."
      explanation: Supports a CNS-specific downstream branch from endothelial/cerebrovascular dysfunction to eclampsia-related complications.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "administration of sFlt1 to pregnant rats induces hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis, the classic lesion of preeclampsia."
    explanation: Direct demonstration that sFlt-1 causes the clinical triad of hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis.
  - reference: PMID:30792480
    reference_title: "Pre-eclampsia: pathogenesis, novel diagnostics and therapies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Maternal endothelial dysfunction due to circulating factors of fetal origin from the placenta is a hallmark of pre-eclampsia."
    explanation: Identifies endothelial dysfunction from placental factors as the hallmark of preeclampsia.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "sEng impairs binding of TGF-beta1 to its receptors and downstream signaling including effects on activation of eNOS and vasodilation, suggesting that sEng leads to dysregulated TGF-beta signaling in the vasculature."
    explanation: Biochemical/cell-based evidence that sEng disrupts TGF-beta receptor binding and eNOS activation.
- name: Glomerular Endotheliosis and Proteinuria
  description: >
    Antiangiogenic injury to glomerular endothelial cells disrupts the
    fenestrated filtration barrier, producing glomerular endotheliosis and
    proteinuria. This renal branch is the most direct organ-specific
    consequence of the sFlt-1/VEGF/PlGF imbalance.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: glomerular endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:0002188
      label: glomerular endothelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: glomerular filtration
    term:
      id: GO:0003094
      label: glomerular filtration
    modifier: DECREASED
  - preferred_term: endothelial cell activation
    term:
      id: GO:0042118
      label: endothelial cell activation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  downstream:
  - target: Proteinuria
    description: Glomerular endothelial swelling and filtration-barrier injury increase urinary protein loss.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "administration of sFlt1 to pregnant rats induces hypertension, proteinuria, and glomerular endotheliosis, the classic lesion of preeclampsia."
    explanation: Demonstrates the renal lesion and proteinuria after sFlt-1 exposure in pregnant rats.
- name: Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP
  description: >
    In severe preeclampsia and HELLP syndrome, systemic endothelial injury and
    inflammatory prothrombotic signaling can be amplified in hepatic sinusoids,
    where low shear favors microthrombi and fibrin deposition. Sinusoidal
    obstruction causes ischemic hepatocyte injury, elevated liver enzymes,
    platelet consumption, and microangiopathic hemolysis.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000398
      label: endothelial cell of hepatic sinusoid
  - preferred_term: platelet
    term:
      id: CL:0000233
      label: platelet
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: blood coagulation
    term:
      id: GO:0007596
      label: blood coagulation
    modifier: INCREASED
  - preferred_term: endothelial cell activation
    term:
      id: GO:0042118
      label: endothelial cell activation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  downstream:
  - target: Thrombocytopenia
    description: Prothrombotic endothelial injury consumes platelets in the HELLP microangiopathy.
  - target: Hemolytic anemia
    description: Microangiopathic vascular injury fragments erythrocytes and produces hemolysis.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:31877439
    reference_title: "The role of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction in the pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement in HELLP syndrome: Exploring the literature."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The dysfunctional placenta in women developing HELLP initiates a cascade of events that eventually results in liver dysfunction."
    explanation: Places HELLP liver injury downstream of placental dysfunction.
  - reference: PMID:31877439
    reference_title: "The role of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction in the pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement in HELLP syndrome: Exploring the literature."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The latter causes ischemic damage and progressive demise of hepatocytes."
    explanation: Supports ischemic hepatocyte injury downstream of sinusoidal obstruction.
- name: Cerebrovascular Autoregulation Failure and Eclampsia
  description: >
    Cerebral vascular dysfunction in preeclampsia can include impaired
    autoregulatory reserve, endothelial injury, blood-brain barrier disruption,
    and vasogenic edema. This branch connects systemic endothelial dysfunction
    to headache, visual symptoms, PRES-like edema, seizures, stroke, and
    eclampsia.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: cerebral blood vessel endothelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:2000044
      label: brain microvascular endothelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: blood circulation
    term:
      id: GO:0008015
      label: blood circulation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  - preferred_term: vasoconstriction
    term:
      id: GO:0042310
      label: vasoconstriction
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  - preferred_term: endothelial cell activation
    term:
      id: GO:0042118
      label: endothelial cell activation
    modifier: DYSREGULATED
  downstream:
  - target: Seizures (eclampsia)
    description: Cerebral edema and vascular dysfunction can precipitate eclamptic seizures.
  - target: Headache
    description: Cerebrovascular dysfunction contributes to severe headache in preeclampsia with severe features.
  - target: Visual disturbances
    description: PRES-like posterior cerebral involvement can produce visual symptoms.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:26126779
    reference_title: "Cerebrovascular Dysfunction in Preeclamptic Pregnancies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Cerebrovascular dysfunction during preeclampsia can lead to cerebral edema, seizures, stroke, and potentially maternal mortality."
    explanation: Directly links preeclampsia cerebrovascular dysfunction to acute neurologic complications.
  - reference: PMID:26126779
    reference_title: "Cerebrovascular Dysfunction in Preeclamptic Pregnancies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "PRES can be caused by an acute elevation in blood pressure that overcomes cerebral artery and arteriole vasoconstriction, resulting in a loss of CBF autoregulation, disruption to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and vasogenic edema formation"
    explanation: Supports the autoregulatory failure, BBB disruption, and vasogenic edema mechanism for eclampsia/PRES-like manifestations.
phenotypes:
- name: Hypertension
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    New-onset hypertension after 20 weeks of gestation, defined as systolic
    blood pressure >=140 mmHg or diastolic >=90 mmHg on two occasions at
    least 4 hours apart. Severe-range hypertension is >=160/110 mmHg.
  frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Maternal hypertension
    term:
      id: HP:0000822
      label: Hypertension
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:34033373
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The parameters for initial identification of hypertension in the context of pregnancy-induced hypertension constituting the \"mild range\" are specifically defined as a systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 140 mm Hg or more or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of 90 mm Hg or more on 2 occasions at least 4 hours apart"
    explanation: Defines the diagnostic blood pressure criteria for preeclampsia.
  - reference: PMID:32443079
    reference_title: "Gestational Hypertension and Preeclampsia: ACOG Practice Bulletin, Number 222."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy constitute one of the leading causes of maternal and perinatal mortality worldwide."
    explanation: Establishes hypertensive disorders as a defining feature of the preeclampsia spectrum.
- name: Proteinuria
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    New-onset proteinuria, typically >=300 mg per 24-hour urine collection or
    protein/creatinine ratio >=0.3 mg/dL. While historically required for
    diagnosis, current guidelines recognize preeclampsia can occur without
    proteinuria if other signs of end-organ dysfunction are present.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Proteinuria
    term:
      id: HP:0000093
      label: Proteinuria
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30792480
    reference_title: "Pre-eclampsia: pathogenesis, novel diagnostics and therapies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The disease presents with new-onset hypertension and often proteinuria in the mother, which can progress to multi-organ dysfunction, including hepatic, renal and cerebral disease, if the fetus and placenta are not delivered."
    explanation: Identifies proteinuria as a frequent but not universal feature of preeclampsia.
- name: Thrombocytopenia
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Low platelet count, particularly prominent in HELLP syndrome. Reflects
    endothelial activation and consumptive coagulopathy.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Thrombocytopenia
    term:
      id: HP:0001873
      label: Thrombocytopenia
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:34033373
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."
    explanation: >-
      Human clinical anchor placing HELLP syndrome — of which thrombocytopenia
      is a defining component — on the preeclampsia spectrum.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"
    explanation: >-
      Rat sFlt1/sEng co-administration model reproduces the low-platelet
      component of HELLP. Model-organism support for the mechanism only; it is
      not the primary evidence for the human phenotype.
- name: Elevated hepatic transaminases
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Elevated circulating hepatic transaminase concentrations reflecting liver
    involvement, a criterion for severe features and a component of HELLP
    syndrome.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Elevated circulating hepatic transaminase concentration
    term:
      id: HP:0002910
      label: Elevated circulating hepatic transaminase concentration
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:31877439
    reference_title: "The role of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction in the pathogenesis of the hepatic involvement in HELLP syndrome: Exploring the literature."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The latter causes ischemic damage and progressive demise of hepatocytes."
    explanation: >-
      Human literature review supports hepatocyte ischemic injury as the basis of
      the transaminase elevation seen in severe preeclampsia and HELLP.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"
    explanation: >-
      Rat model reproduces the elevated-liver-enzyme component of HELLP;
      model-organism corroboration rather than primary human evidence.
  reports_on:
  - target: Hepatic Sinusoidal Obstruction and HELLP
    relationship: READOUT_OF
    direction: POSITIVE
    endpoint_context: DIAGNOSTIC
    interpretation: Hepatic sinusoidal obstruction and ischemia injure hepatocytes, increasing circulating transaminases.
- name: Seizures (eclampsia)
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    New-onset tonic-clonic seizures in a woman with preeclampsia, defining
    the transition to eclampsia. Represents a severe neurological complication
    that can occur antepartum, intrapartum, or postpartum.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Seizure
    term:
      id: HP:0001250
      label: Seizure
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:35177220
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "once thought to be a disease of the central nervous system, recognized by the occurrence of seizures (ie, eclampsia)"
    explanation: Eclamptic seizures are the historically defining severe complication of preeclampsia.
- name: Headache
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Severe, persistent headache that is a warning sign for severe preeclampsia
    and eclampsia, indicating cerebral involvement.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Headache
    term:
      id: HP:0002315
      label: Headache
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39247143
    reference_title: "A Comparative Study of Oral Nifedipine and Intravenous Labetalol for Acute Hypertensive Management in Pregnancy: Assessing Feto-Maternal Outcomes in a Hospital-based Randomized Control Trial."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Severe preeclampsia is defined as blood pressure (BP) >160/110 mmHg with warning signs such as headache, blurring of vision, and epigastric pain."
    explanation: Explicitly identifies headache as a warning sign of severe preeclampsia.
- name: Visual disturbances
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Blurred vision and other visual disturbances are warning signs of severe
    preeclampsia, reflecting cerebral edema and vasospasm.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Blurred vision
    term:
      id: HP:0000622
      label: Blurred vision
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39247143
    reference_title: "A Comparative Study of Oral Nifedipine and Intravenous Labetalol for Acute Hypertensive Management in Pregnancy: Assessing Feto-Maternal Outcomes in a Hospital-based Randomized Control Trial."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Severe preeclampsia is defined as blood pressure (BP) >160/110 mmHg with warning signs such as headache, blurring of vision, and epigastric pain."
    explanation: Explicitly identifies blurring of vision as a warning sign of severe preeclampsia.
- name: Intrauterine growth retardation
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Fetal growth restriction due to impaired uteroplacental perfusion from
    defective spiral artery remodeling. More common in early-onset preeclampsia.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Intrauterine growth retardation
    term:
      id: HP:0001511
      label: Intrauterine growth retardation
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Alterations in the levels of sFlt-1 and free PlGF were greater in women with an earlier onset of preeclampsia and in women in whom preeclampsia was associated with a small-for-gestational-age infant."
    explanation: Links angiogenic factor alterations to small-for-gestational-age infants in preeclampsia.
- name: Hemolytic anemia
  category: Clinical
  subtype: HELLP
  description: >
    Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia as part of HELLP syndrome, reflecting
    erythrocyte destruction in damaged microvasculature.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Hemolytic anemia
    term:
      id: HP:0001878
      label: Hemolytic anemia
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:34033373
    reference_title: "Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "This disease represents a spectrum of hypertensive disease in pregnancy, beginning with gestational hypertension and progressing to develop severe features, ultimately leading to its more severe manifestations, such as eclampsia and HELLP syndrome."
    explanation: >-
      Human clinical anchor placing HELLP — whose "H" is microangiopathic
      hemolysis — within the preeclampsia spectrum.
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "leading to severe preeclampsia including the HELLP (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome"
    explanation: >-
      Rat model reproduces the hemolysis component of HELLP; model-organism
      corroboration rather than primary human evidence.
- name: Pulmonary edema
  category: Clinical
  description: >
    Pulmonary edema due to increased vascular permeability and fluid overload,
    a severe complication of preeclampsia.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Pulmonary edema
    term:
      id: HP:0100598
      label: Pulmonary edema
  notes: >
    Pulmonary edema is a recognized severe complication of preeclampsia,
    resulting from endothelial dysfunction, decreased oncotic pressure,
    and iatrogenic fluid overload. It is included in ACOG criteria for
    severe features of preeclampsia.
biochemical:
- name: Elevated sFlt-1
  presence: Elevated
  context: diagnostic biomarker
  notes: >
    Elevated circulating soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt-1/sVEGFR1),
    a decoy VEGF receptor produced by the ischemic placenta that sequesters
    VEGF and PlGF, disrupting endothelial function.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "At the onset of clinical disease, the mean serum level in the women with preeclampsia was 4382 pg per milliliter, as compared with 1643 pg per milliliter in controls with fetuses of similar gestational age (P<0.001)."
    explanation: Quantifies the elevation of sFlt-1 in preeclampsia versus controls.
- name: Decreased PlGF
  presence: Decreased
  context: diagnostic biomarker
  notes: >
    Reduced circulating free placental growth factor (PlGF), sequestered by
    excess sFlt-1. Low PlGF precedes clinical onset and is an early predictive
    biomarker.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The PlGF levels were significantly lower in the women who later had preeclampsia than in the controls beginning at 13 to 16 weeks of gestation (mean, 90 pg per milliliter vs. 142 pg per milliliter, P=0.01)"
    explanation: Shows that PlGF depression begins early in the second trimester before clinical disease.
- name: Elevated soluble endoglin
  presence: Elevated
  context: diagnostic biomarker
  notes: >
    Elevated circulating soluble endoglin (sEng), a TGF-beta coreceptor
    released by the placenta that inhibits TGF-beta signaling and impairs
    eNOS activation, contributing to endothelial dysfunction.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "We report a novel placenta-derived soluble TGF-beta coreceptor, endoglin (sEng), which is elevated in the sera of preeclamptic individuals, correlates with disease severity and falls after delivery."
    explanation: Identifies elevated sEng as correlating with disease severity.
genetic:
- name: FLT1
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: FLT1
    term:
      id: hgnc:3763
      label: FLT1
  association: Risk Factor (FLT1 polymorphisms) and source of the sFlt-1 effector
  relationship_type: RISK_FACTOR
  notes: >
    Encodes fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (VEGFR1). Alternative splicing produces
    the soluble isoform sFlt-1, which is overexpressed by the preeclamptic
    placenta and acts as a decoy receptor sequestering VEGF and PlGF.
    Polymorphisms in FLT1 are associated with preeclampsia susceptibility.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39062815
    reference_title: "A Narrative Review on the Pathophysiology of Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Genetic and epigenetic modifications, including polymorphisms in the Fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (FLT1) gene and altered microRNA (miRNA) expression, play critical roles."
    explanation: Identifies FLT1 polymorphisms as playing a critical role in preeclampsia.
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "we confirm that placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1), an antagonist of VEGF and placental growth factor (PlGF), is upregulated in preeclampsia"
    explanation: Demonstrates sFlt-1 (FLT1 gene product) upregulation in preeclamptic placentas.
- name: PGF
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: PGF
    term:
      id: hgnc:8893
      label: PGF
  association: Mechanistic effector (reduced free PlGF protein)
  relationship_type: BIOMARKER
  notes: >
    Encodes placental growth factor (PlGF), a VEGF family member essential for
    placental angiogenesis. Free PlGF levels are reduced in preeclampsia due
    to sequestration by excess sFlt-1, and low PlGF is an early biomarker.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:14764923
    reference_title: "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Increased levels of sFlt-1 and reduced levels of PlGF predict the subsequent development of preeclampsia."
    explanation: PlGF reduction is a key predictive feature of preeclampsia.
- name: ENG
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: ENG
    term:
      id: hgnc:3349
      label: ENG
  association: Mechanistic effector (placenta-derived soluble endoglin)
  relationship_type: BIOMARKER
  notes: >
    Encodes endoglin, a TGF-beta coreceptor. The soluble form (sEng) is
    elevated in preeclampsia and synergizes with sFlt-1 to induce severe
    disease including HELLP syndrome in animal models.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:16751767
    reference_title: "Soluble endoglin contributes to the pathogenesis of preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "Our results suggest that sEng may act in concert with sFlt1 to induce severe preeclampsia."
    explanation: Demonstrates the pathogenic role of soluble endoglin (ENG gene product) in severe preeclampsia.
- name: VEGFA
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: VEGFA
    term:
      id: hgnc:12680
      label: VEGFA
  association: Mechanistic effector (free VEGF sequestered by sFlt-1)
  relationship_type: BIOMARKER
  notes: >
    Encodes vascular endothelial growth factor A, a key mediator of
    angiogenesis and endothelial homeostasis. Sequestration of free VEGF by
    excess sFlt-1 in preeclampsia contributes to endothelial dysfunction.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "increased circulating sFlt1 in patients with preeclampsia is associated with decreased circulating levels of free VEGF and PlGF"
    explanation: Human clinical data showing that sFlt-1 excess sequesters free VEGF in preeclampsia patients.
  - reference: PMID:12618519
    reference_title: "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "resulting in endothelial dysfunction in vitro that can be rescued by exogenous VEGF and PlGF."
    explanation: In vitro evidence that exogenous VEGF can rescue sFlt-1-induced endothelial dysfunction.
environmental:
- name: Gestational phthalate exposure
  exposure_term:
    preferred_term: exposure to phthalate
    term:
      id: ECTO:9000522
      label: exposure to phthalate
  description: >-
    Phthalate plasticisers are detected in the urine of nearly all pregnant
    women, and higher gestational concentrations track with a higher rate of
    preeclampsia. What the human data do not supply is a step: the association
    is with onset of the syndrome, not with any measured placental or
    endothelial intermediate, and the strongest series is a nested case-control
    sample of 50 cases drawn from a preterm-birth study rather than a
    preeclampsia cohort. A candidate mediator exists - phthalate metabolites
    track with circulating matrix metalloproteinases, the enzymes that execute
    spiral artery remodeling - but that was measured in a different cohort with
    no preeclampsia endpoint, so it supports plausibility rather than the chain.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:27177253
    reference_title: Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenol A and Phthalate Metabolites Measured during Pregnancy and Risk of Preeclampsia.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Urinary concentrations of BPA and several phthalate metabolites were significantly associated with increased risk of preeclampsia."
    explanation: >-
      Establishes the exposure-disease association in a longitudinally sampled
      pregnancy cohort, which is what makes phthalates an environmental factor
      for this entry.
  influences_mechanisms:
  - target: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
    environmental_effect: PREDISPOSES
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
    description: >-
      Drawn to the placental node because that is where preeclampsia risk is
      thought to be set, not because any step was demonstrated. The cited
      hazard ratios are for onset of the syndrome; nothing between exposure and
      trophoblast behaviour was measured. The intermediates are marked unknown
      deliberately - the matrix metalloproteinase finding below is the leading
      candidate, not an established link, and it points the opposite way from
      the MMP2/MMP9 suppression this file models as the invasion defect.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:27177253
      reference_title: Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenol A and Phthalate Metabolites Measured during Pregnancy and Risk of Preeclampsia.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "We found consistent associations between DEHP metabolites and preeclampsia across pregnancy, with a potential heightened risk associated with concentrations later in pregnancy."
      explanation: >-
        Quantifies the exposure-outcome relationship across gestation. PARTIAL
        because it establishes risk of the syndrome without evidence for the
        placental step this edge points at.
    - reference: PMID:36113809
      reference_title: Associations of urinary phthalate metabolites and inflammatory biomarkers among pregnant women in Puerto Rico.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "significant associations between mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and higher MMP1 by 7.86 % (95 % CI: 0.49, 15.76) and between mono oxononyl phthalate (MONP) and higher MMP2 by 8.30 % (95 % CI: 2.22, 14.75)"
      explanation: >-
        Supplies the candidate mediator - phthalate exposure altering the matrix
        metalloproteinases that remodel spiral arteries. PARTIAL because this
        cohort measured circulating biomarkers, not preeclampsia or placental
        MMP expression, so the mediation is inferred rather than shown. The
        direction is also unresolved and is the most informative thing about
        this citation: the reported association is with *higher* MMP1 and MMP2,
        whereas this entry models defective trophoblast invasion as MMP2/MMP9
        *suppression* (the PSG2 node). Whether a systemic rise in circulating
        metalloproteinases is compatible with local suppression at the
        invading trophoblast front is not addressed by either source.
  - target: Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release
    environmental_effect: PREDISPOSES
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
    description: >-
      The better-supported of the two phthalate edges, because here the outcome
      measured is this node itself rather than the syndrome. In the same birth
      cohort, oxidised DEHP metabolites tracked with falling placental growth
      factor and a rising sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio across gestation - the exact
      angiogenic imbalance this node describes. What remains unknown is the step
      between the plasticiser and the trophoblast that secretes these factors,
      so the intermediates stay marked unknown.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:25913709
      reference_title: Phthalate metabolites and bisphenol-A in association with circulating angiogenic biomarkers across pregnancy.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "oxidized di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites were associated with decreases in PlGF as well as increases in the sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio"
      explanation: >-
        Measures the node's own output - PlGF and the sFlt-1/PlGF ratio - against
        exposure, which is what makes this edge land on a mechanism rather than
        on the diagnosis.
- name: Gestational bisphenol A exposure
  exposure_term:
    preferred_term: exposure to bisphenol A
    term:
      id: ECTO:9000057
      label: exposure to bisphenol A
  description: >-
    Bisphenol A, the polycarbonate and epoxy-resin monomer that shares a source
    pathway with phthalates, showed a comparable association with preeclampsia
    onset in the same cohort. It is curated as a distinct exposure because the
    two chemicals have different sources and different modes of action, and
    because BPA's obstetric evidence base is inconsistent across endpoints -
    the analogous meta-analysis for gestational diabetes is null. No mechanism
    exists at the level of the angiogenic factors that define the maternal
    syndrome, and that is where its single edge is drawn.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:27177253
    reference_title: Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenol A and Phthalate Metabolites Measured during Pregnancy and Risk of Preeclampsia.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "an interquartile range increase of urinary concentrations of BPA (1.53; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.25) and MEP (monoethyl phthalate) (1.72; 95% CI: 1.28, 2.30) at 10 weeks gestation was associated with onset of preeclampsia"
    explanation: >-
      Reports the BPA hazard ratio for preeclampsia onset with an early-gestation
      exposure window, which is the whole basis for listing BPA here.
  influences_mechanisms:
  - target: Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release
    environmental_effect: PREDISPOSES
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
    description: >-
      BPA tracked with higher circulating sFlt-1 and a higher sFlt-1 to PlGF
      ratio across gestation in the same cohort that produced its preeclampsia
      hazard ratio, which puts the exposure and this node in the same population
      rather than in two unrelated studies. It is still an association between a
      urinary exposure biomarker and a plasma factor, with no placental step
      measured.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:25913709
      reference_title: Phthalate metabolites and bisphenol-A in association with circulating angiogenic biomarkers across pregnancy.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "BPA, however, was associated with increased sFlt-1 as well as the sFlt-1 to PlGF ratio in both crude and adjusted models."
      explanation: >-
        Associates BPA exposure with the anti-angiogenic shift this node names,
        which is the mechanism-level claim the hazard-ratio paper cannot make.
- name: Micro- and nanoplastic particle exposure
  exposure_term:
    preferred_term: exposure to microplastic particle
    term:
      id: ECTO:7000061
      label: exposure to microplastic particle
  description: >-
    Polystyrene microplastics reproduce a preeclampsia-like syndrome in pregnant
    rats - hypertension, proteinuria, and shifted angiogenic factor expression -
    through a defined trophoblast mechanism. There is no human counterpart: no
    study has related the plastic burden measurable in human placentas to
    preeclampsia risk, so this exposure rests entirely on a rodent model at
    experimental doses. Listed because the mechanism it names, ferroptotic
    trophoblast injury upstream of failed spiral artery remodeling, is testable
    in human tissue and would matter if it held; see the human-model mismatch
    discussion.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40414414
    reference_title: Microplastic exposure induces preeclampsia-like symptoms via HIF-1α/TFRC-mediated ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "Pregnant rats were exposed to PS-MP, which induced PE-like symptoms including elevated blood pressure, increased proteinuria, and altered expression of angiogenic factors."
    explanation: >-
      Establishes that the exposure produces the maternal syndrome in an animal
      model, which is the only outcome evidence this entry has.
  influences_mechanisms:
  - target: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
    environmental_effect: TRIGGERS
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_KNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
    description: >-
      The rodent chain runs from particle exposure through HIF-1alpha/TFRC
      activation to iron overload, oxidative stress and trophoblast ferroptosis,
      and lands on impaired trophoblast migration, invasion and angiogenesis -
      this node's content. Ferroptosis inhibition rescues those defects, which is
      what makes the intermediates known rather than assumed. The species and
      dose gap to human exposure is unaddressed.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:40414414
      reference_title: Microplastic exposure induces preeclampsia-like symptoms via HIF-1α/TFRC-mediated ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
      snippet: "PS-MP triggered ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells by activating the HIF-1α/TFRC axis, resulting in iron overload and oxidative stress"
      explanation: >-
        Names the intermediate steps that make this an indirect edge with known
        mechanism rather than an unexplained association.
    - reference: PMID:40414414
      reference_title: Microplastic exposure induces preeclampsia-like symptoms via HIF-1α/TFRC-mediated ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells.
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
      snippet: "PS-MP exposure impaired trophoblast migration, invasion, and angiogenesis; these effects were ameliorated by ferroptosis inhibition"
      explanation: >-
        The rescue arm: blocking the proposed intermediate restores the trophoblast
        behaviour this node describes, tying the exposure to the node causally
        within the model.
treatments:
- name: Delivery
  description: >
    Delivery of the fetus and placenta is the only definitive treatment for
    preeclampsia. Timing depends on gestational age and severity, balancing
    maternal risk against fetal prematurity. Generally recommended at 37 weeks
    for preeclampsia without severe features, and earlier if severe features
    or maternal/fetal deterioration occurs.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: labor induction
    term:
      id: NCIT:C92814
      label: Induction of Labor
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30792480
    reference_title: "Pre-eclampsia: pathogenesis, novel diagnostics and therapies."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "which can progress to multi-organ dysfunction, including hepatic, renal and cerebral disease, if the fetus and placenta are not delivered."
    explanation: Identifies delivery as the necessary intervention to prevent progression.
- name: Low-dose aspirin prophylaxis
  description: >
    Low-dose aspirin (150 mg daily) initiated at 11-14 weeks of gestation
    in women identified as high risk reduces the incidence of preterm
    preeclampsia by approximately 62%. This is a preventive intervention,
    not a treatment for established disease.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: acetylsalicylic acid
      term:
        id: CHEBI:15365
        label: acetylsalicylic acid
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:28657417
    reference_title: "Aspirin versus Placebo in Pregnancies at High Risk for Preterm Preeclampsia."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Preterm preeclampsia occurred in 13 participants (1.6%) in the aspirin group, as compared with 35 (4.3%) in the placebo group (odds ratio in the aspirin group, 0.38; 95% confidence interval, 0.20 to 0.74; P=0.004)."
    explanation: The ASPRE trial demonstrated a 62% reduction in preterm preeclampsia with aspirin 150 mg daily.
  - reference: PMID:37891152
    reference_title: "[Preeclampsia: Guidelines for clinical practice from the French College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "In women with a history of vasculo-placental disease, low dose of aspirin (Strong recommendation, Quality of the evidence moderate) at a dosage of 100-160mg per day (Weak recommendation, Quality of the evidence low)"
    explanation: The French College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists clinical practice guidelines make a Strong recommendation for low-dose aspirin in women with a history of vasculo-placental disease; the specific 100-160 mg per day dosage is graded only a Weak recommendation.
- name: Magnesium sulfate for seizure prevention
  description: >
    Magnesium sulfate is the first-line agent for prevention and treatment
    of eclamptic seizures. It halves the risk of eclampsia in women with
    preeclampsia and probably reduces maternal mortality.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: magnesium sulfate
      term:
        id: CHEBI:32599
        label: magnesium sulfate
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:12057549
    reference_title: "Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Women allocated magnesium sulphate had a 58% lower risk of eclampsia (95% CI 40-71) than those allocated placebo (40, 0.8%, vs 96, 1.9%; 11 fewer women with eclampsia per 1000 women)."
    explanation: The Magpie trial demonstrated that magnesium sulfate halves eclampsia risk.
- name: Antihypertensive therapy (labetalol)
  description: >
    Labetalol is a first-line antihypertensive for acute blood pressure
    management in severe preeclampsia, used to prevent hypertensive emergencies
    and stroke.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: labetalol
      term:
        id: CHEBI:6343
        label: labetalol
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39247143
    reference_title: "A Comparative Study of Oral Nifedipine and Intravenous Labetalol for Acute Hypertensive Management in Pregnancy: Assessing Feto-Maternal Outcomes in a Hospital-based Randomized Control Trial."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Nifedipine (C17H18N2O6), labetalol (C19H24N2O3), and hydralazine (C8H8N4) are commonly used drugs, and all are recommended as first-line agents."
    explanation: Identifies labetalol as a recommended first-line agent for acute hypertensive management in pregnancy.
- name: Antihypertensive therapy (nifedipine)
  description: >
    Nifedipine is an alternative first-line oral antihypertensive for acute
    severe hypertension in preeclampsia.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: nifedipine
      term:
        id: CHEBI:7565
        label: nifedipine
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39247143
    reference_title: "A Comparative Study of Oral Nifedipine and Intravenous Labetalol for Acute Hypertensive Management in Pregnancy: Assessing Feto-Maternal Outcomes in a Hospital-based Randomized Control Trial."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "oral nifedipine has been proposed as a first-line alternative to intravenous labetalol."
    explanation: Identifies nifedipine as a first-line alternative antihypertensive for severe preeclampsia.
discussions:
- discussion_id: preeclampsia_upstream_trigger_heterogeneity
  prompt: >
    Which upstream trigger best explains each presentation of preeclampsia:
    decidual immune maladaptation, abnormal placentation, placental stress,
    complement/inflammatory injury, or maternal vascular susceptibility?
  kind: KNOWLEDGE_GAP
  status: OPEN
  attaches_to:
  - pathophysiology#Immune Maladaptation at Maternal-Fetal Interface
  - pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
  - pathophysiology#Placental Anti-Angiogenic Factor Release
  - pathophysiology#Maternal Vascular Susceptibility Threshold
  rationale: >
    The antiangiogenic endothelial dysfunction pathway is comparatively well
    supported, but the initiating biology is heterogeneous. Resolving whether
    early-onset and late-onset preeclampsia are dominated by distinct upstream
    triggers would improve subtype-specific biomarker interpretation,
    preventive trial design, and organ-risk prediction.
  notes: >-
    Added for monarch-initiative/dismech issue 3667. The OpenScientist
    hypothesis deep-research report for
    early_onset_placenta_dominant is available at
    kb/hypotheses/Preeclampsia/early_onset_placenta_dominant/openscientist.md;
    treat report-specific citation suggestions as literature leads requiring
    independent PMID and snippet verification before adding new evidence.
- discussion_id: preeclampsia_microplastic_human_evidence_gap
  prompt: >-
    Does micro- and nanoplastic exposure contribute to human preeclampsia, or is
    the HIF-1alpha/TFRC trophoblast ferroptosis mechanism a property of the rat
    model that produced it?
  kind: HUMAN_MODEL_MISMATCH
  status: OPEN
  attaches_to:
  - pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
  - environmental#Micro- and nanoplastic particle exposure
  rationale: >-
    Every element of the microplastic-preeclampsia claim except the human
    endpoint is in place. Plastic particles are demonstrably present in human
    placental tissue; a rodent model reproduces the maternal syndrome and names
    an interventionally supported trophoblast mechanism. What no study has done
    is relate measured placental or maternal plastic burden to preeclampsia in
    people, and a 2024 systematic review found the human outcome literature
    essentially empty. The exposure is therefore modelled here with an explicit
    species caveat rather than as an established contributor. Note the two
    entries for plastic-derived chemistry in this file sit on opposite footings:
    the phthalate and bisphenol A entries have human risk estimates but no
    mechanism, while this one has a mechanism but no human endpoint. Neither gap
    is filled by the other.
  proposed_experiments:
  - experiment_id: preeclampsia_placental_polymer_burden_case_control
    name: Placental polymer burden and ferroptosis markers in preeclamptic versus normotensive placentas
    description: >-
      Quantify polymer burden by pyrolysis GC-MS in placentas from preeclamptic
      and normotensive pregnancies matched for gestational age and delivery mode,
      paired with the TFRC, iron-handling and lipid-peroxidation readouts the rat
      model identifies. Matching on gestational age matters because preeclamptic
      delivery is earlier, and burden may simply track exposure duration.
    would_support:
    - pathophysiology#Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling
    supporting_outcome:
    - >-
      Higher polymer burden in preeclamptic placentas, accompanied by the
      predicted TFRC and lipid-peroxidation shift, in gestational-age-matched
      comparisons.
    refuting_outcome:
    - >-
      No burden difference after matching, or a burden difference without the
      predicted ferroptotic markers, which would place the rat mechanism outside
      human disease.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:38287142
    reference_title: "Exposure to microplastics and human reproductive outcomes: A systematic review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Cell culture and animal studies have demonstrated potential reproductive toxicity of these particles; however, their association with adverse fertility or pregnancy outcomes in humans is not known."
    explanation: >-
      A systematic review stating the human outcome evidence is absent, which is
      precisely the mismatch this discussion records.
  - reference: PMID:40414414
    reference_title: Microplastic exposure induces preeclampsia-like symptoms via HIF-1α/TFRC-mediated ferroptosis in placental trophoblast cells.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "These findings identified PS-MP-induced ferroptosis as a critical mechanism underlying placental dysfunction, highlighting PS-MP as a potential environmental risk factor for PE."
    explanation: >-
      The model-side claim, stated by its authors as potential rather than
      established, which is the half of the picture that does exist.
datasets:
- accession: geo:GSE324111
  title: Vascular endothelial growth factor receptors 1 and 3 mediate placental trophoblast leptin production in preeclampsia, inducing vascular dysfunction
  description: Heightened soluble FMS-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1) level is a hallmark of preeclampsia patients and induces a state of angiogenic imbalance by sequestering free vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PlGF). The receptors for VEGF and PlGF, membrane-bound VEGFR, are expressed in placental trophoblast cells, but their functions in this cell type are largely unknown. Placenta production of leptin significantly increases in preeclampsia, and we recently showed leptin induces placental and vascular endothelial dysfunction in pregnancy. We hypothesized that inappropriately high sFlt-1 in preeclampsia leads to an increase in trophoblast leptin production.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  data_type: BULK_RNA_SEQ
  sample_count: 6
  publication: PMID:42422950
  notes: Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.
- accession: geo:GSE309563
  title: Differences in miRNAs profile in pregnant women with preeclampsia compared with healthy pregnant women
  description: Individualized outcome prediction classifiers were successfully constructed through expression profiling of a total of 800 human miRNAs in serum samples of 12 pregnant women (4 samples from severe preeclampsia pregnancies, 4 samples from mild preeclampsia pregnancies and 4 samples from healthy pregnancies)
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  data_type: MICROARRAY
  sample_count: 12
  publication: PMID:42135755
  notes: Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.
- accession: geo:GSE303840
  title: Racial discrepancies in placental gene expressions between Black and White healthy and preeclampsia patients of equivalent BMI and blood pressure in a Southeastern USA cohort
  description: Preeclampsia is a devastating hypertensive disorder of pregnancy that afflicts between 5-10% of pregnancies in the US, with a higher prevalence in the southern regions of the United States. Black pregnant women are disproportionally at higher risk for preeclampsia onset and severity of disease than other racial groups, including White women. Although this has been recognized in the maternal fetal medicine literature for many years, the underlying mechanism(s) for this racial disparity are unclear. One confounding issue with many studies of racial discrepancies in pregnant women is differences in comorbidities between racial groups.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  data_type: BULK_RNA_SEQ
  sample_count: 24
  notes: Identified by GEO DataSets index search for Preeclampsia (scripts/discover_datasets.py); accession and metadata verified against NCBI E-utilities on 2026-08-01. Title, sample count, and organism are GEO's own values.
- accession: ega:EGAS00001000416
  title: 'Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: Whole Genome Sequencing of 100 unrelated Uzbeks (DNA samples from the Institute of Immunology, Uzbek Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Republic Specialized Scientific Practical Medical Centre of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tashkent, Uzbekistan)'
  description: Preeclampsia (PE) is a syndrome affecting pregnant mothers and fetus/babies characterised by hypertension and proteinuria, and is a leading cause of maternal and fetal death and of premature births worldwide. The InterPregGen Consortium was funded by a European Framework 7 (FP7) grant and grew out of the WTCCC3 GWAS comparing ~2000 UK PE mothers with ~6000 common UK controls.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  publication: PMID:33239696
  notes: 'European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study''s own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.'
- accession: ega:EGAS00001000417
  title: 'Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: Whole Genome Sequencing of 100 unrelated Kazakhs (DNA samples from the Scientific Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Gulnara Svyatova, Principal Investigator'
  description: Preeclampsia (PE) is a syndrome affecting pregnant mothers and fetus/babies characterised by hypertension and proteinuria, and is a leading cause of maternal and fetal death and of premature births worldwide. The InterPregGen Consortium was funded by a European Framework 7 (FP7) grant and grew out of the WTCCC3 GWAS comparing ~2000 UK PE mothers with ~6000 common UK controls.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  publication: PMID:33239696
  notes: 'European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study''s own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.'
- accession: ega:EGAS00001001048
  title: 'Preeclampsia InterPregGen Consortium: GWAS meta-analysis summary statistics for European fetal preeclampsia cases versus controls and GWAS genotype data for European fetal preeclampsia cases'
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  publication: PMID:28628106
  notes: 'European Genome-phenome Archive study, matched because the disease is named in the study''s own title ("Preeclampsia"); description-level mentions were not accepted. EGA study_type: Other. Controlled access -- data require a Data Access Agreement. EGA metadata retrieved 2026-08-01.'
- accession: metabolomics_workbench:ST001360
  title: Maternal blood lipidomics associated with severe preeclampsia
  notes: Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from metabolomics_workbench. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.
- accession: metabolomics_workbench:ST002151
  title: Integrative Exposomic, Transcriptomic, Epigenomic Analyses of Human Placental Samples Links Understudied Chemicals to Preeclampsia
  notes: Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from metabolomics_workbench. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.
- accession: massive:MSV000085361
  title: Molecular Signatures of Preeclampsia and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Utilizing Multi-Omics Analyses, Part 2
  description: The application of multi-omic evaluations, multi-dimensional analysis methods, and new cheminformatics-based visualization tools to provide an in depth understanding of the molecular changes taking place in preeclampsia (PRE) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) patients. Since PRE and GDM are two prevalent pregnancy complications that result in adverse health effects for both the mother and fetus during pregnancy and later in life, a better understanding of each is essential.
  notes: Located via OmicsDI, which aggregates across omics repositories; this record comes from massive. Only repositories with no other discovery route in this project and with a working accession resolver are curated from OmicsDI -- GEO, ArrayExpress, PRIDE, MetaboLights and EGA hits are excluded as duplicates of dedicated passes. Matched because the disease is named in the dataset's own title ("Preeclampsia"). Retrieved 2026-08-02.

📚

References & Deep Research

Deep Research

1

Research Summary: Preeclampsia (MONDO:0005081) ▸

Research Summary: Preeclampsia (MONDO:0005081)

This is assigned to @nlharris — skipping autonomous curation. This summary is intended as a research aid for the curator.

Disease Overview

Preeclampsia is a multisystem pregnancy disorder affecting 2–8% of pregnancies worldwide, accounting for >50,000 maternal and >500,000 fetal deaths annually. It is defined by new-onset hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg) developing after 20 weeks of gestation, typically accompanied by proteinuria or evidence of end-organ damage. It is the dominant clinical manifestation in a spectrum that includes gestational hypertension, HELLP syndrome (Hemolysis, Elevated Liver enzymes, Low Platelets), and eclampsia (seizures).

The condition is now understood as a vascular disorder unmasked by pregnancy rather than a hypertensive disorder per se — the placenta is the central driver, and delivery is the only definitive cure.

Key ACOG diagnostic update (2019+): Proteinuria is no longer required if severe hypertension coexists with end-organ damage (thrombocytopenia, renal insufficiency, impaired liver function, pulmonary edema, or new-onset headache/visual symptoms).

Pathophysiology: The Two-Stage Model

The dominant framework is a two-stage model (Roberts/Hubel, extensively reviewed):

STAGE 1 (Silent, pre-clinical)         STAGE 2 (Clinical maternal syndrome)
─────────────────────────────           ─────────────────────────────────────
Defective trophoblast invasion   →  →   Anti-angiogenic factors released
+ Failed spiral artery remodeling       into maternal circulation
                   →  →   Endothelial dysfunction (systemic)
                         → Hypertension
                         → Proteinuria (glomerular endotheliosis)
                         → HELLP, eclampsia

This explains the early-onset/late-onset split: early-onset (< 34 wks) is dominated by placental failure (Stage 1); late-onset (≥ 34 wks) by maternal constitutional predisposition and endothelial vulnerability.

Pathophysiology Nodes (Suggested Structure)

Node 1: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling

Normally, extravillous trophoblasts (EVTs) invade the spiral arteries and replace vascular smooth muscle, transforming them from high-resistance to high-capacitance vessels
In preeclampsia, this invasion is shallow; spiral arteries remain narrow, tortuous, and high-resistance
Results in placental ischemia and hypoxia

Key mechanisms: - Impaired uterine NK (uNK) cell tolerance and signaling (KIR/HLA-C interactions at the decidua-trophoblast interface) - HLA-G expressed on EVTs normally dampens NK cytotoxicity; this axis is disrupted in PE - Dysregulated TGF-β, VEGF, and HIF-1α signaling in the decidua

Key cell types: - Extravillous trophoblast (EVT): CL:0000351 (trophoblast) / extravillous subtype - Uterine natural killer cell: CL:0000623 (natural killer cell) — decidual NK cells are CL:0002362 - Decidual stromal cell

Key biological processes: - Trophoblast cell migration / invasion: GO:0001753 (trophoblast giant cell differentiation — verify specificity) - GO:0001570 (vasculogenesis) - GO:0035441 (cell migration involved in vasculogenesis) - Response to hypoxia: GO:0001666

Node 2: Placental Oxidative Stress and sFlt-1 Overproduction

Ischemic/hypoxic placenta upregulates HIF-1α, triggering massive production of sFlt-1 (soluble VEGF receptor-1, a splice variant of FLT1)
sFlt-1 is a potent decoy receptor that sequesters circulating VEGF and PlGF (placental growth factor)
Result: markedly reduced free VEGF/PlGF → anti-angiogenic state in the mother
Soluble endoglin (sEng), also released by the hypoxic placenta, inhibits TGF-β signaling and amplifies endothelial damage
The sFlt-1:PlGF ratio is now used clinically (ratio >38 predicts adverse outcomes within 4 weeks; EMA/FDA approved)

Key genes (need OAK verification of HGNC IDs): - FLT1 (hgnc:3738 — verify) — encodes Flt-1; alternative splicing generates sFlt-1 - PGF (hgnc:8982 — verify) — encodes PlGF - ENG (hgnc:3349 — verify) — encodes endoglin; shed as sEng - VEGFA (hgnc:12680 — verify) — primary target sequestered by sFlt-1

Key biological processes: - GO:0001525 — angiogenesis - GO:0048010 — VEGF receptor signaling pathway - GO:0001666 — cellular response to hypoxia - HIF-1 signaling / hypoxia-inducible factor pathway

Node 3: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction and Multi-Organ Injury

Circulating sFlt-1, sEng, syncytiotrophoblast microparticles, and inflammatory mediators damage the systemic maternal endothelium
Endothelial activation → reduced NO production, endothelin-1 upregulation → vasoconstriction → hypertension
Kidney: Glomerular endotheliosis (pathognomonic lesion — swelling of glomerular endothelial cells, effacement of fenestrae) → proteinuria
Liver: Hepatic sinusoidal obstruction, periportal necrosis → elevated transaminases; capsular distension → epigastric/RUQ pain; HELLP
Brain: Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES), cerebral edema, seizures (eclampsia) — cerebrovascular autoregulation failure
Coagulation: Endothelial activation triggers DIC-spectrum, thrombocytopenia (HELLP)
Placenta: Decidual vasculopathy, infarcts → fetal growth restriction, placental abruption

Key cell types: - Vascular endothelial cell: CL:0000071 (blood vessel endothelial cell) - Glomerular endothelial cell: CL:1000850 (glomerular endothelial cell — verify) - Syncytiotrophoblast: CL:0000525 (syncytiotrophoblast — verify CL ID) - Platelet: CL:0000233

Key biological processes: - GO:0008217 — regulation of blood pressure - GO:0045087 — innate immune response - GO:0042493 — response to drug (for treatment nodes) - Nitric oxide signaling / endothelial NOS pathway - GO:0006954 — inflammatory response - Complement activation: GO:0006956

Clinical Phenotypes (Suggested HPO Terms)

Phenotype	HP term	Notes
Hypertension	`HP:0000822`	Core diagnostic criterion
Proteinuria	`HP:0000093`	Common but not required
Edema	`HP:0000969` (peripheral)	Classic but removed from criteria
Thrombocytopenia	`HP:0001873`	HELLP; <100K/µL is threshold
Elevated hepatic transaminases	`HP:0002910`	HELLP component
Seizures	`HP:0001250`	Defines eclampsia
Headache	`HP:0002315`	New-onset, unresponsive to medication
Intrauterine growth retardation	`HP:0001511`	Fetal consequence
Renal insufficiency	`HP:0000083`	Cr >1.1 mg/dL
Visual impairment	`HP:0000505`	Scotomata, blurred vision
Hemolysis	`HP:0001878`	HELLP — microangiopathic
Pulmonary edema	`HP:0100598`	Severe feature
Abnormal platelet morphology	—	see thrombocytopenia
Placental abruption	`HP:0011410` — verify	Obstetric complication

Subtypes

The entry should have at least two main subtypes: - Early-onset (< 34 weeks): Placenta-driven, more severe, higher sFlt-1, more associated with FGR; higher risk - Late-onset (≥ 34 weeks): More maternal constitutional; less placental pathology; more common but generally less severe - HELLP syndrome: Can be considered a severe variant with microangiopathic hemolysis, elevated LFTs, low platelets; may occur without classic hypertension/proteinuria - Superimposed preeclampsia: On a background of chronic hypertension

Treatments

Treatment	Term	Notes
Low-dose aspirin (prevention)	MAXO:0000058 + CHEBI:29177 (aspirin)	USPSTF Grade B; 81 mg/day from 12–28 wks
Magnesium sulfate (seizure prophylaxis)	MAXO:0000058 + CHEBI:32006 (verify)	Reduces eclampsia 58%; IV loading dose
Labetalol (BP control)	MAXO:0000058 + CHEBI:6522 (labetalol — verify)	First-line IV acute
Nifedipine (BP control)	MAXO:0000058 + CHEBI:7565 (nifedipine — verify)	Oral; first-line
Hydralazine	MAXO:0000058 + CHEBI:5757 (hydralazine — verify)	IV acute management
Delivery	MAXO:0000004 (surgical procedure) or MAXO:0001187	Definitive treatment
Calcium supplementation (prevention)	MAXO:0000088 (dietary intervention)	Effective in low-calcium populations
Corticosteroids (fetal lung maturation)	MAXO:0000647 + CHEBI:16723 (betamethasone — verify)	If < 34 wks gestation

Key Evidence References (Verified PMIDs)

The following PMIDs were confirmed by direct abstract retrieval:

PMID:30792480 — Phipps et al. 2019, Nat Rev Nephrology — "Pre-eclampsia: pathogenesis, novel diagnostics and therapies." Comprehensive mechanistic review covering sFlt-1/sEng/PlGF, endothelial dysfunction, renal glomerular endotheliosis, and emerging therapies. Highly recommended as primary reference.
PMID:35177220 — Erez et al. 2022, Am J Obstet Gynecol — "Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome." Covers the historical shift from neurological → vascular conceptualization; early vs. late onset subtypes; role of antiangiogenic factors.
PMID:34033373 — Karrar et al. 2024, StatPearls — Comprehensive overview of diagnostic criteria, pathophysiology (uteroplacental ischemia), and management.
PMID:32443079 — ACOG Practice Bulletin #222, 2020, Obstet Gynecol — Clinical guideline; the rate of preeclampsia increased 25% between 1987–2004; management thresholds and protocols.

Additional high-priority references to fetch and verify (titles confirmed, PMIDs need just fetch-reference verification):

Maynard et al. (2003) J Clin Invest — "Excess placental soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt1) may contribute to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, and proteinuria in preeclampsia" — The landmark animal model paper establishing sFlt-1 causality.
Levine et al. (2004) N Engl J Med — "Circulating angiogenic factors and the risk of preeclampsia" — Prospective clinical cohort showing sFlt-1 rises and PlGF falls weeks before clinical PE onset.
Redman & Sargent (2005) Science — "Latest advances in understanding preeclampsia" — Overview of immune and vascular mechanisms.
Verlohren et al. (2010/2012) Hypertension — Established the sFlt-1:PlGF ratio clinical cutoff of 38.
Staff et al. (2019) — Clinical use of angiogenic biomarkers in preeclampsia.

Orphanet / Structured Sources

Orphanet ORPHA code for pre-eclampsia: likely ORPHA:275555 — run just fetch-reference ORPHA:275555 to verify and check for definition, prevalence, and gene-disease associations that can be cited as ORPHA:275555 evidence items.

Suggested Module Conformance

Preeclampsia does not appear to conform to the existing fibrotic_response or immune_checkpoint_blockade modules. The disease may warrant a future placental_vascular_dysfunction module given the conserved sFlt-1/PlGF anti-angiogenic mechanism also seen in fetal growth restriction, spontaneous preterm birth, and HELLP syndrome.

The complement-driven endothelial damage node could potentially align with modules used in other thrombotic microangiopathy entries (e.g., aHUS) if those are curated.

Long-term Consequences (for `progression` or `outcomes` section)

Women with prior preeclampsia have 2× lifetime risk of cardiovascular disease, 2–4× risk of hypertension, and 2× risk of stroke
Preterm delivery and FGR are the primary fetal consequences
Recurrence rate in subsequent pregnancies: 15–25% (higher if early-onset index pregnancy)

Summary generated by Claude Code summarization agent from PubMed abstracts and authoritative review sources. All PMIDs must be verified with just fetch-reference before use as snippets.

Ask OpenScientist

OpenScientist Report

Subtypes

Mechanistic Hypotheses

Discussions and Knowledge Gaps

Pathophysiology

Pathograph

Phenotypes

Genetic Associations

Medical Actions

Environmental Factors

Biochemical Markers

Progression

Prevalence

Related Datasets

Source YAML

References & Deep Research

Deep Research

Research Summary: Preeclampsia (MONDO:0005081)

Disease Overview

Pathophysiology: The Two-Stage Model

Pathophysiology Nodes (Suggested Structure)

Node 1: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling

Node 2: Placental Oxidative Stress and sFlt-1 Overproduction

Node 3: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction and Multi-Organ Injury

Clinical Phenotypes (Suggested HPO Terms)

Subtypes

Treatments

Key Evidence References (Verified PMIDs)

Orphanet / Structured Sources

Suggested Module Conformance

Long-term Consequences (for `progression` or `outcomes` section)

Ask OpenScientist

OpenScientist Report

Subtypes

Mechanistic Hypotheses

Discussions and Knowledge Gaps

Pathophysiology

Pathograph

Phenotypes

Genetic Associations

Medical Actions

Environmental Factors

Biochemical Markers

Progression

Prevalence

Related Datasets

Source YAML

References & Deep Research

Deep Research

Research Summary: Preeclampsia (MONDO:0005081)

Disease Overview

Pathophysiology: The Two-Stage Model

Pathophysiology Nodes (Suggested Structure)

Node 1: Defective Trophoblast Invasion and Spiral Artery Remodeling

Node 2: Placental Oxidative Stress and sFlt-1 Overproduction

Node 3: Maternal Endothelial Dysfunction and Multi-Organ Injury

Clinical Phenotypes (Suggested HPO Terms)

Subtypes

Treatments

Key Evidence References (Verified PMIDs)

Orphanet / Structured Sources

Suggested Module Conformance

Long-term Consequences (for progression or outcomes section)

Long-term Consequences (for `progression` or `outcomes` section)