Central retinal artery occlusion is an acute retinal arterial ischemic disorder caused by obstruction of the central retinal artery, producing inner retinal infarction and sudden severe monocular vision loss.
Ask a research question about Central Retinal Artery Occlusion. OpenScientist will conduct autonomous deep research using the Disorder Mechanisms Knowledge Base and PubMed literature (typically 10-30 minutes).
Do not include personal health information in your question. Questions and results are cached in your browser's local storage.
name: Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
creation_date: "2026-05-06T12:00:23Z"
updated_date: "2026-05-06T12:44:00Z"
category: Complex
description: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion is an acute retinal arterial ischemic
disorder caused by obstruction of the central retinal artery, producing inner
retinal infarction and sudden severe monocular vision loss.
disease_term:
preferred_term: central retinal artery occlusion
term:
id: MONDO:0001633
label: central retinal artery occlusion
parents:
- Retinal Vascular Disorder
- Ischemic Vascular Disorder
synonyms:
- CRAO
- Ocular stroke
- Stroke of the eye
has_subtypes:
- name: Non-arteritic Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
description: >-
Most CRAO cases are non-arteritic and arise from thromboembolic or
atherosclerotic vascular occlusion.
- name: Arteritic Central Retinal Artery Occlusion
description: >-
Arteritic CRAO is most often associated with giant cell arteritis and
requires urgent systemic evaluation and treatment.
pathophysiology:
- name: Central Retinal Arterial Obstruction
description: >-
Embolic or thrombotic obstruction of the central retinal artery abruptly
reduces retinal perfusion.
cell_types:
- preferred_term: retinal blood vessel endothelial cell
term:
id: CL:0002585
label: retinal blood vessel endothelial cell
biological_processes:
- preferred_term: blood coagulation
term:
id: GO:0007596
label: blood coagulation
modifier: INCREASED
evidence:
- reference: PMID:33677974
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is a form of acute ischemic stroke
that causes severe visual loss and is a harbinger of further
cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events.
explanation: >-
The AHA scientific statement supports CRAO as an acute ischemic vascular
event causing severe visual loss.
downstream:
- target: Inner Retinal Ischemic Injury
description: >-
Abrupt central retinal artery obstruction deprives the inner retina of
arterial perfusion, producing ischemic injury.
- name: Inner Retinal Ischemic Injury
description: >-
Loss of arterial inflow deprives the inner retina of oxygen and energy,
leading to retinal edema and downstream neuronal injury.
biological_processes:
- preferred_term: response to hypoxia
term:
id: GO:0001666
label: response to hypoxia
modifier: INCREASED
evidence:
- reference: PMID:38905460
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Subsequently, CRAO has consistently been identified as a serious medical
condition that leads to substantial visual impairment.
explanation: >-
This review supports severe retinal injury and visual impairment as a
consequence of CRAO.
downstream:
- target: Retinal Ganglion Cell Death
description: >-
Inner retinal ischemia causes oxidative stress and retinal ganglion cell
death, explaining irreversible vision loss.
- target: Ocular Neovascularization
description: >-
Persistent retinal ischemia can drive later ocular neovascularization and
neovascular glaucoma.
- name: Retinal Ganglion Cell Death
description: >-
Ischemia-reperfusion injury in CRAO produces oxidative stress and death of
retinal ganglion cells, the principal neurons conveying retinal output to
the optic nerve.
cell_types:
- preferred_term: retinal ganglion cell
term:
id: CL:0000740
label: retinal ganglion cell
biological_processes:
- preferred_term: neuron apoptotic process
term:
id: GO:0051402
label: neuron apoptotic process
modifier: INCREASED
evidence:
- reference: PMID:41254661
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
snippet: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) causes irreversible vision loss
through ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, characterized by oxidative
stress and retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death.
explanation: >-
This translational CRAO study directly links retinal ischemia-reperfusion
injury to oxidative stress and retinal ganglion cell death.
- name: Ocular Neovascularization
description: >-
Ischemic retinal signaling after CRAO can promote ocular
neovascularization, including neovascular glaucoma and progressive loss of
remaining vision.
cell_types:
- preferred_term: retinal blood vessel endothelial cell
term:
id: CL:0002585
label: retinal blood vessel endothelial cell
biological_processes:
- preferred_term: angiogenesis
term:
id: GO:0001525
label: angiogenesis
modifier: INCREASED
evidence:
- reference: DOI:10.1177/24741264231213169
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Purpose: To determine the time-based incidence of total blindness after
central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) with secondary ocular
neovascularization (ONV).
explanation: >-
This CRAO cohort study directly supports ocular neovascularization as a
secondary complication after CRAO.
phenotypes:
- name: Sudden Monocular Vision Loss
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Sudden monocular vision loss
term:
id: HP:0000572
label: Visual loss
evidence:
- reference: PMID:41109232
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is a subtype of ischaemic stroke
that results in acute monocular vision loss.
explanation: >-
This phase 3 CRAO trial background directly describes the defining acute
monocular visual-loss presentation. A more specific local HP term was not
available, so the broader visual-loss term is retained with a specific
preferred term.
- name: Reduced Visual Acuity
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Reduced visual acuity
term:
id: HP:0007663
label: Reduced visual acuity
evidence:
- reference: PMID:40832714
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
This individual participant data meta-analysis aimed to determine whether
time to treatment influences the effect of intraarterial thrombolysis
(IAT), intravenous thrombolysis, and conservative standard therapy on
visual outcomes in nonarteritic central retinal artery occlusion.
explanation: >-
The CRAO meta-analysis evaluates visual acuity outcomes, supporting
reduced visual acuity as the measurable clinical deficit.
- name: Retinal Ischemia
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Retinal ischemia
term:
id: HP:0033401
label: Tissue ischemia
evidence:
- reference: PMID:33677974
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is a form of acute ischemic stroke
that causes severe visual loss and is a harbinger of further
cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events.
explanation: >-
CRAO is characterized as an acute ischemic event affecting the retina.
- name: Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: COMMON
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Relative afferent pupillary defect
term:
id: HP:0200057
label: Marcus Gunn pupil
notes: >-
Retained as a common bedside sign from the deep research synthesis. The
previous abstract snippet did not directly mention RAPD, and no exact
abstract-level quote was available, so this entry is documented without an
evidence item.
- name: Cherry-red Spot
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: COMMON
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Cherry-red spot of the macula
term:
id: HP:0010729
label: Cherry red spot of the macula
notes: >-
Retained as a characteristic fundus sign from the deep research synthesis.
The previous abstract snippet did not directly mention a cherry-red spot, so
this entry is documented without an evidence item.
- name: Neovascular Glaucoma
category: Ophthalmologic
frequency: OCCASIONAL
phenotype_term:
preferred_term: Neovascular glaucoma
term:
id: HP:0000501
label: Glaucoma
evidence:
- reference: DOI:10.1177/24741264231213169
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Neovascular glaucoma can present up to 4 months after CRAO, challenging
the paradigm of “30-day-glaucoma.”
explanation: >-
This CRAO cohort study directly supports neovascular glaucoma as a
post-CRAO complication requiring follow-up.
environmental:
- name: Systemic vascular risk
notes: >-
CRAO warrants urgent evaluation for systemic cerebrovascular and
cardiovascular risk factors and embolic sources.
evidence:
- reference: PMID:33677974
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is a form of acute ischemic stroke
that causes severe visual loss and is a harbinger of further
cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events.
explanation: >-
The AHA statement supports systemic vascular risk evaluation and secondary
prevention as part of CRAO care.
treatments:
- name: Acute Stroke-Center Evaluation
description: >-
CRAO is evaluated as an ocular stroke, with urgent systemic vascular risk
assessment and consideration of time-sensitive reperfusion strategies.
treatment_term:
preferred_term: emergency care
term:
id: MAXO:0000672
label: emergency medicine specialist evaluation
evidence:
- reference: PMID:33677974
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Acute CRAO is a medical emergency. Systems of care should evolve to
prioritize early recognition and triage of CRAO to emergency medical attention.
explanation: >-
The AHA statement directly supports urgent emergency evaluation.
- name: Thrombolysis
description: >-
Intravenous thrombolysis is considered in selected early-presenting patients
under stroke-like protocols.
treatment_term:
preferred_term: thrombolytic therapy
term:
id: NCIT:C15338
label: Thrombolytic Therapy
therapeutic_agent:
- preferred_term: alteplase
term:
id: NCIT:C39607
label: Alteplase
- preferred_term: tenecteplase
term:
id: NCIT:C29489
label: Tenecteplase
evidence:
- reference: PMID:40832714
supports: PARTIAL
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Early intervention in nonarteritic central retinal artery occlusion is
associated with improvement in visual recovery, with intraarterial
thrombolysis and intravenous thrombolysis outperforming nonthrombolytic
treatments.
explanation: >-
The individual-participant meta-analysis supports potential benefit of
early thrombolysis while still calling for randomized trial confirmation.
- name: Aspirin Antiplatelet Therapy
description: >-
Aspirin-based antiplatelet therapy is used as part of antithrombotic
management and secondary vascular prevention after retinal artery occlusion.
treatment_term:
preferred_term: aspirin therapy
term:
id: MAXO:0000903
label: aspirin therapy
therapeutic_agent:
- preferred_term: aspirin
term:
id: CHEBI:15365
label: acetylsalicylic acid
evidence:
- reference: PMID:39817651
supports: PARTIAL
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
This paper reviews current literature and clinical trials investigating
the efficacy and safety of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapies, such
as systemic heparinization and direct oral anticoagulants and aspirin, in
treating RAO.
explanation: >-
This recent review supports aspirin and antiplatelet therapy as an
antithrombotic strategy for retinal artery occlusion, while noting that
prospective evidence remains incomplete.
- name: High-Dose Corticosteroids for Arteritic CRAO
description: >-
Suspected giant-cell-arteritis-associated arteritic CRAO requires urgent
systemic corticosteroid treatment to reduce risk of further vision-threatening
ischemia.
treatment_term:
preferred_term: corticosteroid agent therapy
term:
id: MAXO:0000640
label: corticosteroid agent therapy
therapeutic_agent:
- preferred_term: methylprednisolone
term:
id: NCIT:C647
label: Methylprednisolone
evidence:
- reference: DOI:10.3389/fopht.2022.848861
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Vision-threatening GCA is treated acutely with emergent admission for
intravenous methylprednisolone, and long-term high dose oral
corticosteroids remain the standard of care, despite common and sometimes
serious side effects.
explanation: >-
Arteritic CRAO is commonly GCA-associated, and this review directly
supports urgent corticosteroid treatment for vision-threatening GCA.
- name: Ocular Neovascularization Treatment
description: >-
Panretinal photocoagulation and intravitreal anti-VEGF therapy are used to
manage ocular neovascularization after CRAO.
treatment_term:
preferred_term: laser photocoagulation
term:
id: NCIT:C217424
label: Laser Photocoagulation
therapeutic_agent:
- preferred_term: bevacizumab
term:
id: NCIT:C2039
label: Bevacizumab
evidence:
- reference: DOI:10.1177/24741264231213169
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
ONV management included PRP (70.6%), glaucoma drainage implant surgery or
transscleral cyclophotocoagulation (32.4%), and intravitreal anti-VEGF
therapy (mean 2.8 ± 5.6 injections per patient).
explanation: >-
This CRAO cohort directly documents panretinal photocoagulation and
intravitreal anti-VEGF use for post-CRAO ocular neovascularization.
clinical_trials:
- name: NCT04526951
phase: PHASE_III
status: COMPLETED
description: >-
TenCRAOS phase 3 randomized, double-dummy, double-blind trial of systemic
tenecteplase versus aspirin in early central retinal artery occlusion.
evidence:
- reference: clinicaltrials:NCT04526951
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
TENecteplase in Central Retinal Artery Occlusion (TenCRAOS): A
Prospective, randomized-controlled, double-dummy, double-blind phase 3
multi-centre trial of TNK 0.25 mg/kg + placebo vs. ASA + placebo (2 arms
with 1:1 block randomization).
explanation: >-
ClinicalTrials.gov identifies TenCRAOS as a phase 3 trial directly testing
tenecteplase against aspirin in CRAO.
- name: NCT04965038
phase: PHASE_III
status: RECRUITING
description: >-
REVISION phase 3 trial evaluating intravenous alteplase within 4.5 hours of
acute non-arteritic thromboembolic CRAO.
evidence:
- reference: clinicaltrials:NCT04965038
supports: SUPPORT
evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
snippet: >-
Therefore, the REVISION randomized placebo-controlled interventional trial
will investigate intravenous alteplase in CRAO as it is practiced in acute
ischemic stroke, i.e. within 4.5 hours after symptom onset.
explanation: >-
ClinicalTrials.gov identifies REVISION as a phase 3 alteplase trial for
acute CRAO within the stroke-like reperfusion window.
Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) is an acute, usually painless, monocular vision-loss emergency caused by interruption of blood flow through the central retinal artery, producing ischemic injury to the inner retina and carrying substantial near-term risk for systemic vascular events (ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction). Contemporary expert consensus increasingly frames CRAO as “a stroke of the eye,” advocating urgent stroke-center evaluation and aggressive secondary prevention, while definitive, broadly endorsed acute vision-restoring therapy remains unproven and is under active clinical-trial evaluation. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2, chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17)
| Topic | Key data/statistic | Study type/setting | Citation ID | Publication (year; journal) | URL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Incidence | 10,451 incident CRAO cases; weighted mean incidence 2.10 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 2.06–2.14) | Nationwide population-based cohort, South Korea HIRA, 2011–2020 | (park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4, park2024incidenceratesof pages 1-2) | Park et al. 2024; BMC Ophthalmology | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7 |
| Age/sex pattern | CRAO incidence rose with age, peaked at 80–85 years; male predominance overall (60.6% male; male:female incidence ratio ~1.54) | Nationwide population-based cohort, South Korea HIRA | (park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4, park2024incidenceratesof pages 1-2, park2024incidenceratesof pages 8-10) | Park et al. 2024; BMC Ophthalmology | https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7 |
| Visual prognosis | 61% of CRAO patients had vision of counting fingers or worse; another review reports most NA-CRAO patients present severely impaired and prognosis is generally poor | Review synthesis of CRAO literature | (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2, tiwari2024areviewof pages 2-3) | Chen et al. 2024; Eye; Tiwari et al. 2024; Cureus | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w ; https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814 |
| Stroke/MACCE risk | Acute cerebral ischemia on MRI reported in 30% of acute CRAO in one study summarized by review; pooled ischemic cerebrovascular disease incidence in CRAO 14.4% (95% CI 11.4–18.0); CRAO predicted MACCE with HR 2.321 (95% CI 1.439–3.744) | Narrative review; systematic review/meta-analysis; retrospective cohort | (liu2023progressincentral pages 1-3, pothikamjorn2025incidenceandrisk pages 4-5) | Liu et al. 2023; J Int Med Res; Pothikamjorn et al. 2025; Scientific Reports | https://doi.org/10.1177/03000605231198388 ; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18419-7 |
| Thrombolysis outcomes | IVT median onset-to-treatment 158 min; ≥2 Snellen-line improvement 25%; 12.5% reached ≥20/100; symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage 1/13 (7.6%). IAT median onset-to-treatment 335 min; ≥2-line improvement 42% in one center. Meta-analysis of IAT: VA improvement 56% vs 32% controls (OR 3.55, 95% CI 1.74–7.24); benefit greater within 6 h (OR 4.60) than beyond 6 h (OR 3.36); 5 symptomatic ICH and 21 ischemic strokes/TIAs among 507 IAT patients | Single-center retrospective stroke-center cohort; systematic review/meta-analysis | (alhayek2024thrombolytictherapyfor pages 1-2, huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3, huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 8-9) | Alhayek et al. 2024; Neuro-Ophthalmology; Huang et al. 2023; Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol | https://doi.org/10.1080/01658107.2023.2290536 ; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1 |
| Actionable acute treatment window | Practical reperfusion windows emphasized: IV thrombolysis generally considered when within 4.5 h; IAT evidence strongest within 6 h; complete reversal may be possible if reperfused within ~97 min and partial up to 240 min in experimental/clinical synthesis | Review/guideline-oriented synthesis and meta-analysis | (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6, chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4, huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3) | Chen et al. 2024; Eye; Huang et al. 2023; Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w ; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1 |
| Ocular neovascularization | Ocular neovascularization prevalence 2.5–31.6%; mean onset 8.5 weeks after CRAO | Review synthesis | (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6) | Chen et al. 2024; Eye | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w |
| Key diagnostic imaging frequencies | Fundus findings in CRAO: cherry-red spot 90%, posterior pole retinal opacity 58%, disc pallor 39%, retinal artery attenuation 32%, disc edema 22%, box-carring 19%, visible intra-arterial emboli ~20% | Review summarizing clinical/imaging studies | (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4, tiwari2024areviewof pages 4-6) | Chen et al. 2024; Eye; Tiwari et al. 2024; Cureus | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w ; https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814 |
| Actionable diagnostic workup | Immediate same-day ophthalmic + stroke-style workup recommended: carotid/vascular imaging, cardiac evaluation (echo/Holter), neuroimaging, lipids/HbA1c; in atypical/young cases add thrombophilia/vasculitis testing; in patients >50 urgently exclude GCA with ESR/CRP/FBC and start steroids if suspected | Narrative/review guidance based on guideline-oriented pathways | (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7, yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 2-4) | Chen et al. 2024; Eye; Daxer et al. 2024; Medicina; Yu et al. 2024; J Ophthalmic Vis Res | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w ; https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040526 ; https://doi.org/10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559 |
Table: This table compiles the most actionable quantitative findings for central retinal artery occlusion, including incidence, prognosis, vascular risk, treatment timing/effects, and diagnostic frequencies. It is useful as a compact evidence map for clinical and knowledge-base curation.
CRAO is an ophthalmic vascular occlusion characterized by partial or complete obstruction of the central retinal artery (CRA), resulting in acute retinal ischemia and profound vision loss. The American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) Preferred Practice Pattern defines CRAO as “partial/complete obstruction of the central retinal artery.” (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 8-10)
A 2024 clinical review explicitly frames the condition as analogous to brain stroke: “Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO), like a stroke in the brain, is a critical eye condition that requiring urgent medical attention.” (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2)
This report synthesizes: - Aggregated disease-level resources and guidelines (AAO Preferred Practice Pattern; reviews) (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15, chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2) - Population-level administrative claims epidemiology (Korea HIRA incidence) (park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4, park2024incidenceratesof pages 1-2) - Cohorts/meta-analyses for systemic risk and treatment evidence (pothikamjorn2025incidenceandrisk pages 4-5, huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3) - ClinicalTrials.gov registry records for trials (NCT04526951 chunk 1, NCT04965038 chunk 1)
CRAO is predominantly a thromboembolic phenomenon. The AAO PPP states central retinal artery occlusions are commonly embolic. (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15)
A 2024 Eye review summarizes embolic/thrombotic occlusion as the most implicated mechanism and notes approximately 55% of patients in one study had an identifiable embolic source. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4)
Arteritic CRAO is a distinct inflammatory entity, most often due to giant cell arteritis (GCA), requiring urgent systemic therapy to prevent bilateral blindness and other ischemic complications. (daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 1-2, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17)
Atherosclerotic and cardioembolic risk - Traditional vascular risk factors (advanced age, male sex, smoking, cardiovascular disease) overlap strongly with ischemic stroke/MI risk factors. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4) - Carotid disease is a frequent source: among non-arteritic CRAO patients undergoing cervical vessel imaging, 71% had an ipsilateral carotid plaque in one cohort summarized in a 2024 review. (yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 1-2) - Severe carotid stenosis: one review cites ~18% of CRAO patients having internal carotid stenosis >80% in a study. (tiwari2024areviewof pages 3-4)
Atrial fibrillation and cardiac disease - A 2025 systematic review/meta-analysis of retinal artery occlusion (RAO) found atrial fibrillation associated with ischemic cerebrovascular disease after RAO (OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.12–1.55). (pothikamjorn2025incidenceandrisk pages 4-5) - Narrative review evidence also emphasizes atrial fibrillation and valvular disease as important embolic sources for CRAO. (daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 2-3)
Hypercoagulable/hematologic and inflammatory disorders (selected examples) Recent reviews highlight CRAO associations with antiphospholipid syndrome and inherited thrombophilias as less common but relevant in younger/atypical cases. (tiwari2024areviewof pages 2-3, tiwari2024areviewof pages 4-6) - Suggested gene-level entities (risk, not disease-causal for CRAO): F5 (Factor V Leiden), PROC, PROS1.
Inflammation and biomarker evidence (human cohort) A 2023 retrospective cohort reported CRAO patients had higher inflammatory markers (median NLR 2.18 vs 1.94; hs-CRP 1.20 vs 0.83 mg/L) and CRAO independently predicted MACCE (HR 2.321, 95% CI 1.439–3.744). NLR (HR 1.275) and hs-CRP (HR 1.021) were also independent predictors. (chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 3-4, chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 2-3)
Direct CRAO-specific gene–environment interaction studies were not identified in the retrieved evidence. Clinically, inherited thrombophilia risk (e.g., Factor V Leiden) is typically considered in conjunction with acquired prothrombotic exposures (e.g., smoking, estrogen therapy, systemic inflammation) as part of individualized risk assessment. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, tiwari2024areviewof pages 4-6)
Acute symptoms/signs - Sudden, painless monocular vision loss (often profound). (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 8-10) - Relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD). (daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 1-2, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 10-13)
Fundus and imaging phenotypes (with frequencies from 2024 review) Fundus findings reported in CRAO include: cherry-red spot 90%, posterior pole retinal opacity 58%, disc pallor 39%, retinal artery attenuation 32%, disc edema 22%, box-carring 19%; intra-arterial emboli visible in ~20%. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4)
OCT/OCT-A phenotypes - Acute inner retinal hyperreflectivity and thickening evolving to inner retinal thinning/atrophy. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7) - Paracentral acute middle maculopathy (PAMM) in milder/early cases. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4)
CRAO is associated with severe functional visual impairment (often ≤ counting fingers) and reduced quality of life, consistent with its characterization as catastrophic ophthalmic emergency. (liu2023progressincentral pages 1-3, tiwari2024areviewof pages 2-3)
CRAO is typically not a monogenic disorder. No CRAO-causal genes were identified in the retrieved clinical reviews/guidelines.
No CRAO-specific pathogenic variants were identified in the retrieved evidence. Genetic testing is not standard for typical older atherosclerotic CRAO.
While CRAO is not genetic in the Mendelian sense, hypercoagulability evaluation in selected patients may involve heritable thrombophilia entities (e.g., Factor V Leiden) as clinical risk modifiers. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, tiwari2024areviewof pages 4-6)
No CRAO-specific epigenomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, or metabolomic signatures were identified in the retrieved evidence. Reviews suggest RAO ocular proteomics remains under-studied. (scott2020retinalvascularocclusions pages 3-4)
Environmental/lifestyle factors align with vascular risk: smoking and cardiometabolic risk factors are repeatedly emphasized in CRAO risk profiles. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4, lakkis2025centralretinalartery pages 2-3)
No specific infectious agents were identified as common CRAO triggers in the retrieved evidence; rare infective vegetations are described as uncommon embolic sources in narrative review. (daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 2-3)
1) Upstream trigger: embolus/thrombus (carotid/cardiac) or inflammatory luminal narrowing (GCA) occludes CRA. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 1-2) 2) Immediate consequence: abrupt hypoperfusion of inner retina (CRA supplies inner layers), with minimal collateralization at the arteriolar level. (yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 1-2, lakkis2025centralretinalartery pages 2-3) 3) Cellular injury: rapid ischemic damage; experimental and clinical syntheses emphasize extreme time sensitivity—full reversal may be possible if perfusion restored within ~97 minutes, with partial recovery up to 240 minutes in some summaries; other reviews cite very rapid irreversible injury in complete occlusion scenarios. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4) 4) Clinical manifestation: sudden profound vision loss; fundus whitening and cherry-red spot; OCT evidence of inner retinal edema then atrophy. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7) 5) Downstream sequelae: retinal atrophy; in some patients, ocular neovascularization/neovascular glaucoma weeks later. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17)
Inflammation is mechanistically central in arteritic CRAO (GCA) and may contribute to systemic risk, with inflammatory biomarkers (NLR, hs-CRP) predicting MACCE in a CRAO cohort. (chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 2-3, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 1-2)
GO biological process (examples) - Response to hypoxia (GO:0001666) - Neuron apoptotic process (GO:0051402) - Inflammatory response (GO:0006954) - Angiogenesis (GO:0001525) (for neovascular complications)
Cell types (CL; examples) - Retinal ganglion cell (CL:0000740) - Retinal endothelial cell (CL:0002395) - Microglial cell (CL:0000129) (relevant to ischemia models)
UBERON suggestions - Retina (UBERON:0000966) - Central retinal artery (UBERON term exists; exact ID not retrieved in this run) - Optic nerve head (UBERON:0000972)
Typically unilateral; bilateral cases are rare. (daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 2-3)
The therapeutic opportunity is time-limited and analogized to stroke reperfusion windows; multiple sources emphasize very early reperfusion as the key determinant for any chance of meaningful visual rescue. (huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3, chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4)
A 2024 nationwide South Korean claims study (HIRA) reported: - 10,451 incident CRAO cases (2011–2020) - Weighted mean CRAO incidence 2.10/100,000 person-years (95% CI 2.06–2.14) - Male predominance (60.6% male; male:female incidence ratio ~1.54) - Incidence rises with age and peaks at ages 80–85 years (park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4, park2024incidenceratesof pages 1-2, park2024incidenceratesof pages 8-10)
A 2023 narrative review summarizes similar age-adjusted incidence estimates across countries (e.g., ~1.87–2.7 per 100,000 person-years all ages, markedly higher in >80 years). (liu2023progressincentral pages 1-3)
Population-level evidence shows higher incidence in men and steep age gradient with older age groups at highest risk. (park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4)
CRAO is predominantly multifactorial (vascular) rather than inherited Mendelian disease.
Diagnosis is based on acute clinical presentation plus fundus and multimodal imaging; early fundus may be subtle, so OCT/OCT-A can assist early detection. (yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 2-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7)
Multiple reviews and the AAO PPP recommend urgent systemic evaluation similar to TIA/stroke pathways, including: - Carotid/vascular imaging (duplex ultrasound) (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7) - Cardiac evaluation (echocardiography; Holter for paroxysmal AF) (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7) - Neuroimaging due to concurrent cerebral ischemia risk (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4) - Labs for vascular risk (lipids, HbA1c) and, in younger/atypical cases, hypercoagulability/vasculitis testing (protein C/S, factor V Leiden, antiphospholipid antibodies; ANA/ANCA, etc.). (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7) - In patients >50 with suspected arteritis, urgent ESR/CRP/CBC and immediate corticosteroids when appropriate. (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7)
Visual evidence (workup table and classification figure): Chen et al. provide a classification figure and a “suggested history and investigations” table. (chen2024centralretinalartery media 966201bd, chen2024centralretinalartery media 2cd88d0e)
Includes transient monocular visual loss (“retinal TIA”), ocular ischemic syndromes, retinal vein occlusion, optic neuropathies, and inflammatory arteritic ischemia (GCA). (scott2020retinalvascularocclusions pages 3-4, daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7)
Overall visual prognosis is poor. A 2024 review reports 61% of CRAO patients have presenting vision of counting fingers or worse. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2)
Ocular neovascularization risk is clinically important. One 2024 review reports prevalence 2.5–31.6% with mean onset 8.5 weeks after CRAO. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6)
CRAO is associated with increased risk of ischemic stroke and other vascular events. - A 2025 RAO meta-analysis reported pooled ischemic cerebrovascular disease incidence in CRAO of 14.4% (95% CI 11.4–18.0). (pothikamjorn2025incidenceandrisk pages 4-5) - A 2023 CRAO cohort found MACCE incidence higher in CRAO vs controls (23.4% vs 9.9%), with CRAO independently predicting MACCE (HR 2.321). (chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 3-4)
No universally guideline-endorsed acute vision-restoring therapy Reviews repeatedly conclude evidence remains insufficient for a single optimal acute management plan. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6, yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 1-2)
Conservative maneuvers (limited benefit) Common approaches include ocular massage and intraocular pressure lowering (acetazolamide, anterior chamber paracentesis), carbogen, vasodilators, etc., but reviews emphasize absence of convincing benefit over natural history in high-quality trials and an average improvement rate ~15–21% in retrospective series. (liu2023progressincentral pages 5-7, tiwari2024areviewof pages 6-7)
Thrombolysis (active area; time-window dependent) - Intra-arterial thrombolysis meta-analysis (2023): VA improvement 56% vs 32% in controls (OR 3.55), with greater benefit within 6 hours (OR 4.60). Safety signals include symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage and ischemic stroke/TIA events. (huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3, huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 8-9) - Single-center stroke-center experience (2024): IVT used rarely (3.55%); ≥2-line improvement 25% after IVT; symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage 1/13 (7.6%); no 3-month VA difference versus matched conservative controls. (alhayek2024thrombolytictherapyfor pages 1-2)
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) Evidence is mixed: case series report logMAR improvements with complications (e.g., barotrauma), while a recent meta-analytic conclusion cited in a 2024 review is that HBOT “does not improve final visual outcomes” and carries risks. (liu2023progressincentral pages 5-7, chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6)
Laser embolysis (Nd:YAG) and surgical approaches Nd:YAG embolysis may help selected patients with visible emboli, but applicability is limited and hemorrhagic complications occur; vitrectomy-based and endovascular/vitreoretinal approaches are emerging but lack robust comparative outcome data in the retrieved excerpts. (liu2023progressincentral pages 5-7, yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 10-12)
Subacute ocular complication management Pan-retinal photocoagulation (PRP) ± intravitreal anti-VEGF is recommended for iris/retinal neovascularization per AAO PPP. (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15)
Given stroke-equivalent framing, secondary prevention mirrors TIA/minor stroke practice in many pathways. A 2024 review states guidelines support early antiplatelet therapy (e.g., initial dual therapy for 21 days then long-term single agent, typically aspirin 81 mg). (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6)
TenCRAOS (NCT04526951) - Phase 3, randomized, double-blind, double-dummy; tenecteplase 0.25 mg/kg IV bolus vs aspirin 300 mg within 4.5 hours. - Primary outcome: proportion achieving ≤0.7 logMAR at 30 days. - Outcomes include safety (intracranial hemorrhage, systemic bleeding) and QoL (NEI-VFQ-25; EQ-5D). (NCT04526951 chunk 1)
REVISION (NCT04965038) - Phase 3, randomized, placebo-controlled, quadruple-masked; tenecteplase within 4.5 hours; enrollment 422. - Primary outcome: BCVA LogMAR ≤0.5 at 30 days. - Secondary outcomes: OCTA/FFA perfusion, MRI ischemic lesions, NIHSS/mRS, hemorrhagic complications, mortality. (NCT04965038 chunk 1)
Selective intra-arterial thrombolysis (NCT05562284) - Nonrandomized open-label; super-selective IAT with alteplase vs conservative (including HBOT); symptom duration ≤7 days. - Primary outcome: Humphrey visual-field indices at 3 months. (NCT05562284 chunk 1)
Primary prevention aligns with cardiovascular risk reduction (smoking cessation, blood pressure and lipid control, diabetes management) due to shared causal pathways with ischemic stroke. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4)
Urgent stroke-center evaluation and initiation of appropriate antithrombotic therapy and risk-factor management aim to prevent early recurrent ischemic events; AAO PPP emphasizes highest stroke risk in the first 1–4 weeks, especially first 7 days. (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17)
Monitoring and treating ocular neovascularization (PRP ± anti-VEGF) reduces risk of neovascular glaucoma. (fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15)
No naturally occurring CRAO epidemiology in non-human species was identified in the retrieved evidence; the available evidence primarily concerns induced experimental models.
A 2019 comprehensive review summarizes 88 experiments across six species (rodents most common; monkeys second) to model RAO/CRAO, with key conclusions: - Best anatomical similarity to humans: nonhuman primates, then pigs. (vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 1-2) - Most common induction methods: laser-induced occlusion and arterial ligation/clamping; other methods include raised intraocular pressure, vasoconstrictors, embolization, and endovascular techniques. (vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 1-2) - Major limitation: most experimental occlusions last 30–90 minutes and are followed by reperfusion, whereas human CRAO may be longer lasting; endovascular approaches may produce more permanent occlusion. (vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 1-2, vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 7-8)
These models are used to study ischemic retinal injury mechanisms, reperfusion biology, inflammatory responses, and candidate neuroprotective/reperfusion interventions, but careful validation and awareness of collateral damage/reperfusion are necessary for translational relevance. (vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 8-10)
1) Stroke-equivalent framing is now mainstream in ophthalmology and neuro-ophthalmology: CRAO should be treated as acute retinal arterial ischemia requiring urgent systemic workup at a stroke center. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2, fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17) 2) Evidence gap for acute vision rescue remains the main unmet need: conservative maneuvers are not reliably effective; thrombolysis shows time-dependent signals but is limited by delays, heterogeneity, and safety concerns; multiple phase 3 trials are designed to address this. (huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3, NCT04965038 chunk 1) 3) Secondary prevention is actionable now: early vascular evaluation and antithrombotic/risk-factor management are recommended to reduce early stroke risk and longer-term MACCE risk. (chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6, chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 3-4)
References
(chen2024centralretinalartery pages 1-2): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(chen2024centralretinalartery pages 4-4): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 15-17): A. Fawzi, Steven T. Bailey, Jennifer I. Lim, Gui-shang Ying, Robert S. Feder, R. Chuck, Steven P. Dunn, C. Flaxel, S. Gedde, Francis S. Mah, Randall J. Olson, David K. Wallace, and D. Musch. Retinal and ophthalmic artery occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology, 127:P259-P287, Feb 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028, doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028. This article has 170 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(park2024incidenceratesof pages 2-4): Shin Hyeong Park, Bum Jun Kim, Ji Hye Kim, Seung Chan Kim, Rock Bum Kim, and Yong Seop Han. Incidence rates of retinal vascular occlusive diseases from 2011 to 2020 in south korea: a nationwide cohort study. BMC Ophthalmology, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7, doi:10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7. This article has 10 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(park2024incidenceratesof pages 1-2): Shin Hyeong Park, Bum Jun Kim, Ji Hye Kim, Seung Chan Kim, Rock Bum Kim, and Yong Seop Han. Incidence rates of retinal vascular occlusive diseases from 2011 to 2020 in south korea: a nationwide cohort study. BMC Ophthalmology, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7, doi:10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7. This article has 10 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(park2024incidenceratesof pages 8-10): Shin Hyeong Park, Bum Jun Kim, Ji Hye Kim, Seung Chan Kim, Rock Bum Kim, and Yong Seop Han. Incidence rates of retinal vascular occlusive diseases from 2011 to 2020 in south korea: a nationwide cohort study. BMC Ophthalmology, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7, doi:10.1186/s12886-024-03397-7. This article has 10 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(tiwari2024areviewof pages 2-3): Varun Tiwari, Simerjeet Singh J Bagga, Roshan Prasad, and Swapneel Mathurkar. A review of current literature on central retinal artery occlusion: its pathogenesis, clinical management, and treatment. Cureus, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814, doi:10.7759/cureus.55814. This article has 12 citations.
(liu2023progressincentral pages 1-3): Weishai Liu, Dan Bai, and Lieling Kou. Progress in central retinal artery occlusion: a narrative review. The Journal of International Medical Research, Sep 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1177/03000605231198388, doi:10.1177/03000605231198388. This article has 23 citations.
(pothikamjorn2025incidenceandrisk pages 4-5): Thananop Pothikamjorn, Chutibhorn Charnnarong, Paweena Susantitaphong, and Supharat Jariyakosol. Incidence and risk factors associated with ischemic cerebrovascular disease in patients with retinal artery occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, Sep 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-18419-7, doi:10.1038/s41598-025-18419-7. This article has 1 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(alhayek2024thrombolytictherapyfor pages 1-2): Nour Alhayek, Jacob M. Sobczak, Aimen Vanood, Cumara B. O’Carroll, Bart M. Demaerschalk, John Chen, and Oana M. Dumitrascu. Thrombolytic therapy for central retinal artery occlusion in an academic multi-site stroke centre. Neuro-Ophthalmology, 48:111-121, Jan 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/01658107.2023.2290536, doi:10.1080/01658107.2023.2290536. This article has 3 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 1-3): Lele Huang, Yujie Wang, and Ruijun Zhang. Efficacy and safety of intra-arterial thrombolysis in patients with central retinal artery occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 261:103-113, Aug 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1, doi:10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1. This article has 20 citations.
(huang2023efficacyandsafety pages 8-9): Lele Huang, Yujie Wang, and Ruijun Zhang. Efficacy and safety of intra-arterial thrombolysis in patients with central retinal artery occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology, 261:103-113, Aug 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1, doi:10.1007/s00417-022-05797-1. This article has 20 citations.
(chen2024centralretinalartery pages 5-6): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(chen2024centralretinalartery pages 2-4): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(tiwari2024areviewof pages 4-6): Varun Tiwari, Simerjeet Singh J Bagga, Roshan Prasad, and Swapneel Mathurkar. A review of current literature on central retinal artery occlusion: its pathogenesis, clinical management, and treatment. Cureus, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814, doi:10.7759/cureus.55814. This article has 12 citations.
(daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 5-7): Barbara Daxer, Wolfgang Radner, Florian Fischer, Andreea-Liliana Cocoșilă, and Armin Ettl. Aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of arterial occlusions of the retina—a narrative review. Medicina, 60:526, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040526, doi:10.3390/medicina60040526. This article has 12 citations.
(yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 2-4): Hannah J. Yu, Sophia Choi, Rodney Guiseppi, and Touka Banaee. Retinal artery occlusion: a review of current management practices. Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research, 19:488-507, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559, doi:10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559. This article has 7 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 8-10): A. Fawzi, Steven T. Bailey, Jennifer I. Lim, Gui-shang Ying, Robert S. Feder, R. Chuck, Steven P. Dunn, C. Flaxel, S. Gedde, Francis S. Mah, Randall J. Olson, David K. Wallace, and D. Musch. Retinal and ophthalmic artery occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology, 127:P259-P287, Feb 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028, doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028. This article has 170 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 22-26): A. Fawzi, Steven T. Bailey, Jennifer I. Lim, Gui-shang Ying, Robert S. Feder, R. Chuck, Steven P. Dunn, C. Flaxel, S. Gedde, Francis S. Mah, Randall J. Olson, David K. Wallace, and D. Musch. Retinal and ophthalmic artery occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology, 127:P259-P287, Feb 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028, doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028. This article has 170 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 1-2): Hannah J. Yu, Sophia Choi, Rodney Guiseppi, and Touka Banaee. Retinal artery occlusion: a review of current management practices. Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research, 19:488-507, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559, doi:10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559. This article has 7 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(scott2020retinalvascularocclusions pages 3-4): Ingrid U Scott, Peter A Campochiaro, Nancy J Newman, and Valérie Biousse. Retinal vascular occlusions. The Lancet, 396:1927-1940, Dec 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(20)31559-2, doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)31559-2. This article has 300 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 13-15): A. Fawzi, Steven T. Bailey, Jennifer I. Lim, Gui-shang Ying, Robert S. Feder, R. Chuck, Steven P. Dunn, C. Flaxel, S. Gedde, Francis S. Mah, Randall J. Olson, David K. Wallace, and D. Musch. Retinal and ophthalmic artery occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology, 127:P259-P287, Feb 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028, doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028. This article has 170 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(NCT04526951 chunk 1): Anne Hege Aamodt. TENecteplase in Central Retinal Artery Occlusion Stuy (TenCRAOS). Oslo University Hospital. 2020. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04526951
(NCT04965038 chunk 1): Early Reperfusion Therapy With Intravenous Thrombolysis for Recovery of VISION in Acute Central Retinal Artery Occlusion. University Hospital Tuebingen. 2022. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04965038
(daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 1-2): Barbara Daxer, Wolfgang Radner, Florian Fischer, Andreea-Liliana Cocoșilă, and Armin Ettl. Aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of arterial occlusions of the retina—a narrative review. Medicina, 60:526, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040526, doi:10.3390/medicina60040526. This article has 12 citations.
(tiwari2024areviewof pages 3-4): Varun Tiwari, Simerjeet Singh J Bagga, Roshan Prasad, and Swapneel Mathurkar. A review of current literature on central retinal artery occlusion: its pathogenesis, clinical management, and treatment. Cureus, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814, doi:10.7759/cureus.55814. This article has 12 citations.
(daxer2024aetiologydiagnosisand pages 2-3): Barbara Daxer, Wolfgang Radner, Florian Fischer, Andreea-Liliana Cocoșilă, and Armin Ettl. Aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of arterial occlusions of the retina—a narrative review. Medicina, 60:526, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60040526, doi:10.3390/medicina60040526. This article has 12 citations.
(chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 3-4): Ting Chen, Yuedan Wang, Xuejie Li, Jiaqing Feng, Hongxia Yang, Ying Li, Hui Feng, and Xuan Xiao. Sex differences in major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular event risk among central retinal artery occlusion patients. Scientific Reports, Sep 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42247-2, doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42247-2. This article has 9 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(chen2023sexdifferencesin pages 2-3): Ting Chen, Yuedan Wang, Xuejie Li, Jiaqing Feng, Hongxia Yang, Ying Li, Hui Feng, and Xuan Xiao. Sex differences in major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular event risk among central retinal artery occlusion patients. Scientific Reports, Sep 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42247-2, doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42247-2. This article has 9 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(fawzi2020retinalandophthalmic pages 10-13): A. Fawzi, Steven T. Bailey, Jennifer I. Lim, Gui-shang Ying, Robert S. Feder, R. Chuck, Steven P. Dunn, C. Flaxel, S. Gedde, Francis S. Mah, Randall J. Olson, David K. Wallace, and D. Musch. Retinal and ophthalmic artery occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology, 127:P259-P287, Feb 2020. URL: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028, doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.028. This article has 170 citations and is from a highest quality peer-reviewed journal.
(lakkis2025centralretinalartery pages 3-5): Toufic Lakkis, Anas Mahmoud Awad Elshoura, Gabriel Andres Soria Behr, Mata Cardenas Eduardo Mauricio, Susana Sil-Zavaleta, Long Yin Cai, and Manju Rai. Central retinal artery occlusion in acute care: current practices and emerging therapies. Cureus, Sep 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.92786, doi:10.7759/cureus.92786. This article has 0 citations.
(lakkis2025centralretinalartery pages 2-3): Toufic Lakkis, Anas Mahmoud Awad Elshoura, Gabriel Andres Soria Behr, Mata Cardenas Eduardo Mauricio, Susana Sil-Zavaleta, Long Yin Cai, and Manju Rai. Central retinal artery occlusion in acute care: current practices and emerging therapies. Cureus, Sep 2025. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.92786, doi:10.7759/cureus.92786. This article has 0 citations.
(yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 4-5): Hannah J. Yu, Sophia Choi, Rodney Guiseppi, and Touka Banaee. Retinal artery occlusion: a review of current management practices. Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research, 19:488-507, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559, doi:10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559. This article has 7 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(chen2024centralretinalartery media 966201bd): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(chen2024centralretinalartery media 2cd88d0e): Celia Chen, Gurfarmaan Singh, Reema Madike, and Sudha Cugati. Central retinal artery occlusion: a stroke of the eye. Eye, 38:2319-2326, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w, doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03029-w. This article has 43 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(liu2023progressincentral pages 5-7): Weishai Liu, Dan Bai, and Lieling Kou. Progress in central retinal artery occlusion: a narrative review. The Journal of International Medical Research, Sep 2023. URL: https://doi.org/10.1177/03000605231198388, doi:10.1177/03000605231198388. This article has 23 citations.
(tiwari2024areviewof pages 6-7): Varun Tiwari, Simerjeet Singh J Bagga, Roshan Prasad, and Swapneel Mathurkar. A review of current literature on central retinal artery occlusion: its pathogenesis, clinical management, and treatment. Cureus, Mar 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.55814, doi:10.7759/cureus.55814. This article has 12 citations.
(yu2024retinalarteryocclusion pages 10-12): Hannah J. Yu, Sophia Choi, Rodney Guiseppi, and Touka Banaee. Retinal artery occlusion: a review of current management practices. Journal of Ophthalmic and Vision Research, 19:488-507, Dec 2024. URL: https://doi.org/10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559, doi:10.18502/jovr.v19i4.16559. This article has 7 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(NCT05562284 chunk 1): Ping Fei. Safety and Efficacy After Selective Intra-arterial Thrombolysis for Central Retinal Artery Occlusion. Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine. 2022. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05562284
(vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 1-2): Nanna Vestergaard, Lasse Jørgensen Cehofski, Bent Honoré, Kristian Aasbjerg, and Henrik Vorum. Animal models used to simulate retinal artery occlusion: a comprehensive review. Translational Vision Science & Technology, 8:23, Aug 2019. URL: https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.8.4.23, doi:10.1167/tvst.8.4.23. This article has 25 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 7-8): Nanna Vestergaard, Lasse Jørgensen Cehofski, Bent Honoré, Kristian Aasbjerg, and Henrik Vorum. Animal models used to simulate retinal artery occlusion: a comprehensive review. Translational Vision Science & Technology, 8:23, Aug 2019. URL: https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.8.4.23, doi:10.1167/tvst.8.4.23. This article has 25 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.
(vestergaard2019animalmodelsused pages 8-10): Nanna Vestergaard, Lasse Jørgensen Cehofski, Bent Honoré, Kristian Aasbjerg, and Henrik Vorum. Animal models used to simulate retinal artery occlusion: a comprehensive review. Translational Vision Science & Technology, 8:23, Aug 2019. URL: https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.8.4.23, doi:10.1167/tvst.8.4.23. This article has 25 citations and is from a peer-reviewed journal.