Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Psychiatric MONDO:0000690 Pathograph 6 Psychiatric Disease Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder

Body dysmorphic disorder is an obsessive-compulsive-related psychiatric disorder characterized by excessive preoccupation with perceived appearance defects, repetitive behaviors, distress, impairment, and frequent psychiatric comorbidity.

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3
Pathophys.
6
Phenotypes
6
Pathograph
2
Treatments
3
Differentials
5
References
1
Deep Research
⚙

Pathophysiology

3
Multifactorial Cognitive-Affective and Environmental Liability
BDD is modeled as arising from interacting biological, psychological, and environmental factors that produce persistent appearance concerns and repetitive responses to perceived defects.
Downstream
Appearance-Related Preoccupation Multifactorial liability is represented upstream of intrusive, appearance-related preoccupation.
Compulsive Appearance-Related Behaviors Appearance concerns are modeled as driving repetitive checking, grooming, reassurance seeking, and related behaviors.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29701157 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"It is currently understood to arise from a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors."
Pharmacotherapy review supports a multifactorial etiology model.
Aberrant Visual Attention and Perceptual Processing
BDD involves selective attention biases and altered visual scanning that may contribute to imbalanced global versus detailed appearance processing.
neuron link
brain link
Downstream
Appearance-Related Preoccupation Aberrant perceptual processing is represented as a contributor to appearance distortions and concern.
Show evidence (2 references)
DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"In individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), perceptual appearance distortions may be related to selective attention biases and aberrant visual scanning, contributing to imbalances in global vs. detailed visual processing."
fMRI and eye-tracking study directly supports aberrant visual attention and visual processing as a BDD mechanism.
DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"We acquired fMRI data in 37 unmedicated adults with BDD and 30 healthy controls."
Study design supports a human neuroimaging evidence source for this mechanism.
Serotonergic Treatment-Relevant Biology
SSRI response and pharmacotherapy evidence are represented as treatment- relevant support for serotonin-linked mechanisms in BDD.
response to serotonin link ⚠ ABNORMAL
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI medication are most effective for BDD."
Clinical review supports SSRIs as effective, providing treatment-linked evidence for serotonergic relevance.
⬡

Pathograph

Use the checkboxes to hide or show graph categories. Hover nodes for evidence and cross-linked metadata.
Pathograph: causal mechanism network for Body Dysmorphic Disorder Interactive directed graph showing how pathophysiology mechanisms, phenotypes, genetic factors and variants, experimental models, environmental triggers, and treatments relate through causal and linked edges.
●

Phenotypes

6
Nervous System 5
Compulsive Appearance-Related Behaviors Compulsive behaviors (HP:0000722)
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"The preoccupation with the perceived appearance defect typically occurs for many hours a day and is often followed by repetitive behaviours (for example mirror checking and skin picking)."
Review abstract directly supports repetitive appearance-related behaviors.
Anxiety Anxiety (HP:0000739)
Show evidence (1 reference)
DOI:10.2196/46515 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Approximately 46.6% (150/322) of the participants with BDD reported a history of psychiatric comorbidities, including anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and eating disorders."
Cross-sectional web survey supports anxiety as a common psychiatric comorbidity.
Depression Depression (HP:0000716)
Show evidence (1 reference)
DOI:10.2196/46515 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Further, BDD is frequently associated with other psychiatric disorders, particularly depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and eating disorder."
Survey conclusion supports depressive disorder comorbidity.
Delusional Insight Delusion (HP:0000746)
Show evidence (1 reference)
DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733 PARTIAL Human Clinical
"Results showed significant improvements in BDD symptoms (g = −0.97), depression (g = −0.51), anxiety (g = −0.72), insight/delusion (g = −0.57), psychosocial functioning (g = 0.45), and quality of life (g = 0.44), with effects sustained from 1 to 6 months follow-up."
Meta-analysis supports insight/delusion as a measured treatment outcome; support is partial for delusion as a phenotype because the measure is a composite insight/delusion domain.
Suicidal Ideation Suicidal ideation (HP:0031589)
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"BDD leads to significant distress and/or impairment at work or school and is highly comorbid with major depressive disorder, alcohol or substance use disorder, social anxi-ety disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder and often leads to suicidal ideation."
Review abstract directly supports suicidal ideation as a clinically important outcome of BDD.
Other 1
Appearance-Related Preoccupation Abnormal preoccupation (HP:0025785)
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a relatively common disorder characterized by a preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in appearance."
Review abstract directly supports appearance-related preoccupation as a defining feature.
💊

Treatments

2
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Action: cognitive behavior therapy MAXO:0000883
Cognitive behavioral therapy is an evidence-supported psychological treatment for BDD symptoms and related anxiety, depression, functioning, and quality-of-life outcomes.
Target Phenotypes: Abnormal preoccupation ↗ Compulsive behaviors ↗
Show evidence (3 references)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI medication are most effective for BDD."
Clinical review identifies CBT among the most effective BDD treatments.
DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"This study included 15 RCTs up until 15 June 2024, with 905 participants."
Meta-analysis summarizes randomized controlled trial evidence for psychological treatments in BDD.
DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"In conclusion, this study underscores the effectiveness of psychological treatments in reducing BDD symptoms and improving related outcomes, highlighting the need for further research to confirm the impact of these therapies on other outcomes."
RCT meta-analysis supports psychological treatment efficacy.
SSRI Pharmacotherapy
Action: Pharmacotherapy NCIT:C15986
Agent: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor ↗
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are represented as pharmacotherapy for BDD, usually alongside CBT in current treatment approaches.
Target Phenotypes: Abnormal preoccupation ↗ Compulsive behaviors ↗
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI medication are most effective for BDD."
Review supports SSRI medication as an effective treatment option.
PMID:29701157 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Treatment of body dysmorphic disorder typically consists of a combination of pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy."
Pharmacotherapy review supports medication as part of typical BDD treatment.
🌍

Environmental Factors

1
Environmental and psychosocial risk factors
Environmental risk is represented broadly because the cacheable evidence supports environmental contribution but not a single specific exposure with quotable detail.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29701157 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"It is currently understood to arise from a combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors."
Review supports environmental contribution to BDD etiology.
🔀

Differential Diagnoses

3

Conditions with similar clinical presentations that must be differentiated from Body Dysmorphic Disorder:

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Not Yet Curated MONDO:0008114
Overlapping Features OCD can share repetitive checking and intrusive concerns with BDD.
Distinguishing Features
  • In BDD, preoccupations and repetitive behaviors are focused on perceived defects in physical appearance; in OCD they are not restricted to appearance concerns.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:30806630 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"The preoccupation with the perceived appearance defect typically occurs for many hours a day and is often followed by repetitive behaviours (for example mirror checking and skin picking)."
Repetitive checking and appearance preoccupation support OCD as a differential diagnosis while preserving BDD's appearance-focused distinction.
Eating Disorder Not Yet Curated MONDO:0005451
Overlapping Features Eating disorders can overlap when body-image concerns and shape or weight evaluation dominate the presentation.
Distinguishing Features
  • BDD focuses on perceived defects in appearance that are not limited to body weight or shape; primary weight/shape-driven restriction, bingeing, or purging favors an eating-disorder diagnosis.
Show evidence (1 reference)
DOI:10.2196/46515 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Further, BDD is frequently associated with other psychiatric disorders, particularly depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and eating disorder."
Population survey evidence supports eating disorders as an overlapping diagnostic context for BDD presentations.
Delusional Disorder Not Yet Curated MONDO:0004359
Overlapping Features Poor or absent insight in BDD can resemble fixed delusional belief.
Distinguishing Features
  • BDD is distinguished by appearance-focused preoccupation plus repetitive behaviors or avoidance, with insight specified along a continuum.
Show evidence (1 reference)
DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Results showed significant improvements in BDD symptoms (g = −0.97), depression (g = −0.51), anxiety (g = −0.72), insight/delusion (g = −0.57), psychosocial functioning (g = 0.45), and quality of life (g = 0.44), with effects sustained from 1 to 6 months follow-up."
Evidence that insight/delusion is measured in BDD supports delusional disorder as a differential when appearance beliefs are fixed.
{ }

Source YAML

click to show 
name: Body Dysmorphic Disorder
creation_date: "2026-04-28T00:00:00Z"
updated_date: "2026-04-28T15:27:23Z"
category: Psychiatric
description: >-
  Body dysmorphic disorder is an obsessive-compulsive-related psychiatric
  disorder characterized by excessive preoccupation with perceived appearance
  defects, repetitive behaviors, distress, impairment, and frequent psychiatric
  comorbidity.
disease_term:
  preferred_term: body dysmorphic disorder
  term:
    id: MONDO:0000690
    label: body dysmorphic disorder
parents:
- Psychiatric Disease
- Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorder
synonyms:
- BDD
- Body dysmorphia
prevalence:
- population: Community samples
  percentage: 2.0
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      The weighted prevalence of BDD in a community sample is around 2%, but it
      is higher in clinical settings and in cosmetic and dermatological
      settings.
    explanation: >-
      Review abstract provides a community prevalence estimate and notes higher
      rates in clinical/cosmetic settings.
pathophysiology:
- name: Multifactorial Cognitive-Affective and Environmental Liability
  description: >-
    BDD is modeled as arising from interacting biological, psychological, and
    environmental factors that produce persistent appearance concerns and
    repetitive responses to perceived defects.
  downstream:
  - target: Appearance-Related Preoccupation
    description: >-
      Multifactorial liability is represented upstream of intrusive,
      appearance-related preoccupation.
  - target: Compulsive Appearance-Related Behaviors
    description: >-
      Appearance concerns are modeled as driving repetitive checking,
      grooming, reassurance seeking, and related behaviors.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29701157
    reference_title: Pharmacological Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      It is currently understood to arise from a combination of biological,
      psychological, and environmental factors.
    explanation: >-
      Pharmacotherapy review supports a multifactorial etiology model.
- name: Aberrant Visual Attention and Perceptual Processing
  description: >-
    BDD involves selective attention biases and altered visual scanning that
    may contribute to imbalanced global versus detailed appearance processing.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: neuron
    term:
      id: CL:0000540
      label: neuron
  locations:
  - preferred_term: brain
    term:
      id: UBERON:0000955
      label: brain
  downstream:
  - target: Appearance-Related Preoccupation
    description: >-
      Aberrant perceptual processing is represented as a contributor to
      appearance distortions and concern.
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2
    reference_title: Neural and behavioral effects of modification of visual attention in body dysmorphic disorder
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      In individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), perceptual appearance
      distortions may be related to selective attention biases and aberrant
      visual scanning, contributing to imbalances in global vs. detailed visual
      processing.
    explanation: >-
      fMRI and eye-tracking study directly supports aberrant visual attention
      and visual processing as a BDD mechanism.
  - reference: DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2
    reference_title: Neural and behavioral effects of modification of visual attention in body dysmorphic disorder
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      We acquired fMRI data in 37 unmedicated adults with BDD and 30 healthy
      controls.
    explanation: >-
      Study design supports a human neuroimaging evidence source for this
      mechanism.
- name: Serotonergic Treatment-Relevant Biology
  description: >-
    SSRI response and pharmacotherapy evidence are represented as treatment-
    relevant support for serotonin-linked mechanisms in BDD.
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: response to serotonin
    term:
      id: GO:1904014
      label: response to serotonin
    modifier: ABNORMAL
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI
      medication are most effective for BDD.
    explanation: >-
      Clinical review supports SSRIs as effective, providing treatment-linked
      evidence for serotonergic relevance.
phenotypes:
- name: Appearance-Related Preoccupation
  category: Psychiatric
  diagnostic: true
  description: Persistent concern with perceived physical appearance defects.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Abnormal preoccupation
    term:
      id: HP:0025785
      label: Abnormal preoccupation
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a relatively common disorder
      characterized by a preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in
      appearance.
    explanation: >-
      Review abstract directly supports appearance-related preoccupation as a
      defining feature.
- name: Compulsive Appearance-Related Behaviors
  category: Psychiatric
  diagnostic: true
  description: Repetitive checking, grooming, skin picking, reassurance seeking, or camouflaging behaviors.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Compulsive behaviors
    term:
      id: HP:0000722
      label: Compulsive behaviors
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      The preoccupation with the perceived appearance defect typically occurs
      for many hours a day and is often followed by repetitive behaviours (for
      example mirror checking and skin picking).
    explanation: >-
      Review abstract directly supports repetitive appearance-related
      behaviors.
- name: Anxiety
  category: Psychiatric
  description: Anxiety disorders commonly co-occur with BDD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Anxiety
    term:
      id: HP:0000739
      label: Anxiety
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.2196/46515
    reference_title: "Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Approximately 46.6% (150/322) of the participants with BDD reported a
      history of psychiatric comorbidities, including anxiety disorders,
      depressive disorders, and eating disorders.
    explanation: >-
      Cross-sectional web survey supports anxiety as a common psychiatric
      comorbidity.
- name: Depression
  category: Psychiatric
  description: Depressive disorders commonly co-occur with BDD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Depression
    term:
      id: HP:0000716
      label: Depression
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.2196/46515
    reference_title: "Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Further, BDD is frequently associated with other psychiatric disorders,
      particularly depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and eating disorder.
    explanation: >-
      Survey conclusion supports depressive disorder comorbidity.
- name: Delusional Insight
  category: Psychiatric
  description: Insight can be poor or delusional, and psychological treatment improves insight/delusion outcomes.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Delusion
    term:
      id: HP:0000746
      label: Delusion
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
    reference_title: "The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials"
    supports: PARTIAL
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Results showed significant improvements in BDD symptoms (g = −0.97),
      depression (g = −0.51), anxiety (g = −0.72), insight/delusion (g =
      −0.57), psychosocial functioning (g = 0.45), and quality of life (g =
      0.44), with effects sustained from 1 to 6 months follow-up.
    explanation: >-
      Meta-analysis supports insight/delusion as a measured treatment outcome;
      support is partial for delusion as a phenotype because the measure is a
      composite insight/delusion domain.
- name: Suicidal Ideation
  category: Psychiatric
  description: Suicidal ideation is a clinically important adverse outcome in BDD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Suicidal ideation
    term:
      id: HP:0031589
      label: Suicidal ideation
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      BDD leads to significant distress and/or impairment at work or school and
      is highly comorbid with major depressive disorder, alcohol or substance
      use disorder, social anxi-ety disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder
      and often leads to suicidal ideation.
    explanation: >-
      Review abstract directly supports suicidal ideation as a clinically
      important outcome of BDD.
environmental:
- name: Environmental and psychosocial risk factors
  description: >-
    Environmental risk is represented broadly because the cacheable evidence
    supports environmental contribution but not a single specific exposure with
    quotable detail.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29701157
    reference_title: Pharmacological Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      It is currently understood to arise from a combination of biological,
      psychological, and environmental factors.
    explanation: >-
      Review supports environmental contribution to BDD etiology.
treatments:
- name: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
  description: >-
    Cognitive behavioral therapy is an evidence-supported psychological
    treatment for BDD symptoms and related anxiety, depression, functioning, and
    quality-of-life outcomes.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: cognitive behavior therapy
    term:
      id: MAXO:0000883
      label: cognitive behavior therapy
  target_phenotypes:
  - preferred_term: Abnormal preoccupation
    term:
      id: HP:0025785
      label: Abnormal preoccupation
  - preferred_term: Compulsive behaviors
    term:
      id: HP:0000722
      label: Compulsive behaviors
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI
      medication are most effective for BDD.
    explanation: >-
      Clinical review identifies CBT among the most effective BDD treatments.
  - reference: DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
    reference_title: "The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      This study included 15 RCTs up until 15 June 2024, with 905 participants.
    explanation: >-
      Meta-analysis summarizes randomized controlled trial evidence for
      psychological treatments in BDD.
  - reference: DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
    reference_title: "The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      In conclusion, this study underscores the effectiveness of psychological
      treatments in reducing BDD symptoms and improving related outcomes,
      highlighting the need for further research to confirm the impact of these
      therapies on other outcomes.
    explanation: >-
      RCT meta-analysis supports psychological treatment efficacy.
- name: SSRI Pharmacotherapy
  description: >-
    Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are represented as pharmacotherapy
    for BDD, usually alongside CBT in current treatment approaches.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
      term:
        id: NCIT:C94725
        label: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor
  target_phenotypes:
  - preferred_term: Abnormal preoccupation
    term:
      id: HP:0025785
      label: Abnormal preoccupation
  - preferred_term: Compulsive behaviors
    term:
      id: HP:0000722
      label: Compulsive behaviors
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Research suggests that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and SSRI
      medication are most effective for BDD.
    explanation: >-
      Review supports SSRI medication as an effective treatment option.
  - reference: PMID:29701157
    reference_title: Pharmacological Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Treatment of body dysmorphic disorder typically consists of a combination
      of pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.
    explanation: >-
      Pharmacotherapy review supports medication as part of typical BDD
      treatment.
differential_diagnoses:
- name: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
  description: >-
    OCD can share repetitive checking and intrusive concerns with BDD.
  distinguishing_features:
  - >-
    In BDD, preoccupations and repetitive behaviors are focused on perceived
    defects in physical appearance; in OCD they are not restricted to
    appearance concerns.
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: obsessive-compulsive disorder
    term:
      id: MONDO:0008114
      label: obsessive-compulsive disorder
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:30806630
    reference_title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      The preoccupation with the perceived appearance defect typically occurs
      for many hours a day and is often followed by repetitive behaviours (for
      example mirror checking and skin picking).
    explanation: >-
      Repetitive checking and appearance preoccupation support OCD as a
      differential diagnosis while preserving BDD's appearance-focused
      distinction.
- name: Eating Disorder
  description: >-
    Eating disorders can overlap when body-image concerns and shape or weight
    evaluation dominate the presentation.
  distinguishing_features:
  - >-
    BDD focuses on perceived defects in appearance that are not limited to body
    weight or shape; primary weight/shape-driven restriction, bingeing, or
    purging favors an eating-disorder diagnosis.
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: eating disorder
    term:
      id: MONDO:0005451
      label: eating disorder
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.2196/46515
    reference_title: "Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Further, BDD is frequently associated with other psychiatric disorders,
      particularly depressive disorder, anxiety disorder, and eating disorder.
    explanation: >-
      Population survey evidence supports eating disorders as an overlapping
      diagnostic context for BDD presentations.
- name: Delusional Disorder
  description: >-
    Poor or absent insight in BDD can resemble fixed delusional belief.
  distinguishing_features:
  - >-
    BDD is distinguished by appearance-focused preoccupation plus repetitive
    behaviors or avoidance, with insight specified along a continuum.
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: delusional disorder
    term:
      id: MONDO:0004359
      label: delusional disorder
  evidence:
  - reference: DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
    reference_title: "The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: >-
      Results showed significant improvements in BDD symptoms (g = −0.97),
      depression (g = −0.51), anxiety (g = −0.72), insight/delusion (g =
      −0.57), psychosocial functioning (g = 0.45), and quality of life (g =
      0.44), with effects sustained from 1 to 6 months follow-up.
    explanation: >-
      Evidence that insight/delusion is measured in BDD supports delusional
      disorder as a differential when appearance beliefs are fixed.
references:
- reference: PMID:30806630
  title: "[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment]."
  findings: []
- reference: PMID:29701157
  title: Pharmacological Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
  findings: []
- reference: DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
  title: "The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials"
  findings: []
- reference: DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2
  title: Neural and behavioral effects of modification of visual attention in body dysmorphic disorder
  findings: []
- reference: DOI:10.2196/46515
  title: "Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study"
  findings: []
📚

References & Deep Research

References

5
PMID:30806630
[Body dysmorphic disorder: Symptoms, prevalence, assessment and treatment].
No top-level findings curated for this source.
PMID:29701157
Pharmacological Treatment of Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
No top-level findings curated for this source.
DOI:10.1017/S0033291724002733
The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials
No top-level findings curated for this source.
DOI:10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2
Neural and behavioral effects of modification of visual attention in body dysmorphic disorder
No top-level findings curated for this source.
DOI:10.2196/46515
Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study
No top-level findings curated for this source.

Deep Research

1
Falcon ▸
Disease Characteristics Research Template
Edison Scientific Literature 22 citations 2026-04-28T10:13:35.596302

Question: You are an expert researcher providing comprehensive, well-cited information.

Provide detailed information focusing on: 1. Key concepts and definitions with current understanding 2. Recent developments and latest research (prioritize 2023-2024 sources) 3. Current applications and real-world implementations 4. Expert opinions and analysis from authoritative sources 5. Relevant statistics and data from recent studies

Format as a comprehensive research report with proper citations. Include URLs and publication dates where available. Always prioritize recent, authoritative sources and provide specific citations for all major claims.

Disease Characteristics Research Template

Target Disease

  • Disease Name: Body Dysmorphic Disorder
  • MONDO ID: (if available)
  • Category: Psychiatric

Research Objectives

Please provide a comprehensive research report on Body Dysmorphic Disorder covering all of the disease characteristics listed below. This report will be used to populate a disease knowledge base entry. Be thorough and cite primary literature (PMID preferred) for all claims.

For each section, suggested databases/resources are listed. These are the first places you should search for information on each topic.

1. Disease Information

Search first: OMIM, Orphanet, ICD-10/ICD-11, MeSH, PubMed

  • What is the disease? Provide a concise overview.
  • What are the key identifiers? (OMIM, Orphanet, ICD-10/ICD-11, MeSH, Mondo)
  • What are the common synonyms and alternative names?
  • Is the information derived from individual patients (e.g., EHR) or aggregated disease-level resources?

2. Etiology

  • Disease Causal Factors: What are the primary causes? (genetic, environmental, infectious, mechanistic)
  • Risk Factors:

    Search first: PubMed, Cochrane Library, UpToDate, clinical guidelines, ClinVar, ClinGen, GWAS Catalog, PheGenI, CTD, CDC, WHO, epidemiological databases

  • Genetic risk factors (causal variants, susceptibility loci, modifier genes)
  • Environmental risk factors (toxins, lifestyle, occupational exposures, age, sex, family history)
  • Protective Factors:

    Search first: PubMed, Cochrane Library, clinical trial databases, GWAS Catalog, gnomAD, WHO, CDC, nutrition databases

  • Genetic protective factors (protective variants, modifier alleles)
  • Environmental protective factors (diet, lifestyle, exposures that reduce risk)
  • Gene-Environment Interactions: How do genetic and environmental factors interact to influence disease?

    Search first: CTD, PubMed, PheGenI, GxE databases

3. Phenotypes

Search first: HPO (Human Phenotype Ontology), OMIM, Orphanet, PubMed, clinicaltrials.gov, MedDRA, SNOMED CT, DECIPHER, LOINC

For each phenotype, provide: - Phenotype type: symptoms, clinical signs, physical manifestations, behavioral changes, or laboratory abnormalities

For symptoms/signs: HPO, OMIM, Orphanet, PubMed For behavioral changes: HPO, DSM, RDoC (Research Domain Criteria), PubMed For laboratory abnormalities: LOINC, SNOMED CT, LabTests Online, PubMed - Phenotype characteristics: Search first: OMIM, Orphanet, HPO, PubMed - Age of symptom onset (neonatal, childhood, adult-onset, late-onset) - Symptom severity (mild, moderate, severe, variable) - Symptom progression (stable, progressive, episodic, fluctuating) - Frequency among affected individuals (percentage or qualitative) - Quality of life impact: Effects on daily functioning and well-being (per-phenotype when possible) Search first: EQ-5D database, SF-36, WHO QOL databases, PubMed - Suggest HPO (Human Phenotype Ontology) terms for each phenotype

4. Genetic/Molecular Information

  • Causal Genes: Gene mutations or chromosomal abnormalities responsible for disease (gene symbols, OMIM IDs)

    Search first: OMIM, ClinVar, HGMD, Ensembl, NCBI Gene

  • Pathogenic Variants:
  • Affected genes (gene symbols, HGNC IDs) > Search first: OMIM, NCBI Gene, Ensembl, HGNC, UniProt, GeneCards
  • Variant classification (pathogenic, likely pathogenic, VUS per ACMG/AMP guidelines) > Search first: ClinVar, ClinGen, ACMG/AMP guidelines, VarSome
  • Variant type/class (missense, frameshift, nonsense, splice-site, structural)
  • Allele frequency in population databases > Search first: gnomAD, 1000 Genomes, ExAC, TOPMed, dbSNP
  • Somatic vs germline origin > Search first: COSMIC (somatic), ClinVar, ICGC, TCGA
  • Functional consequences (loss of function, gain of function, dominant negative)
  • Modifier Genes: Genes that modify disease severity or expression
  • Epigenetic Information: DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin changes affecting disease

    Search first: ENCODE, Roadmap Epigenomics, MethBase, DiseaseMeth

  • Chromosomal Abnormalities: Large-scale genetic changes (aneuploidy, translocations, inversions)

    Search first: DECIPHER, ClinVar, ECARUCA, UCSC Genome Browser

5. Environmental Information

  • Environmental Factors: Non-genetic contributing factors (toxins, radiation, pollution, occupational exposure)

    Search first: CTD (Comparative Toxicogenomics Database), TOXNET, PubMed, EPA databases

  • Lifestyle Factors: Behavioral factors (smoking, diet, exercise, alcohol consumption)

    Search first: CDC databases, WHO, PubMed, NHANES

  • Infectious Agents: If applicable, pathogens causing or triggering disease (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites)

    Search first: NCBI Taxonomy, ViPR, BV-BRC, MicrobeDB, GIDEON

6. Mechanism / Pathophysiology

  • Molecular Pathways: Specific signaling cascades or biochemical pathways involved (Wnt, MAPK, mTOR, PI3K-AKT, etc.)

    Search first: KEGG, Reactome, WikiPathways, PathBank, BioCyc

  • Cellular Processes: Cell-level mechanisms (apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle dysregulation, inflammation, etc.)

    Search first: Gene Ontology (GO), Reactome, KEGG, PubMed

  • Protein Dysfunction: How protein structure or function is altered (misfolding, aggregation, loss of function, gain of function)

    Search first: UniProt, PDB (Protein Data Bank), InterPro, Pfam, AlphaFold

  • Metabolic Changes: Alterations in metabolic processes (energy metabolism, lipid metabolism, amino acid metabolism)

    Search first: KEGG, BioCyc, HMDB (Human Metabolome Database), BRENDA

  • Immune System Involvement: Role of immune response (autoimmunity, immunodeficiency, chronic inflammation)

    Search first: ImmPort, Immunome Database, IEDB, Gene Ontology

  • Tissue Damage Mechanisms: How tissues/ are injured (oxidative stress, ischemia, fibrosis, necrosis)

    Search first: PubMed, Gene Ontology, Reactome

  • Biochemical Abnormalities: Specific molecular defects (enzyme deficiencies, receptor dysfunction, ion channel defects)

    Search first: BRENDA, UniProt, KEGG, OMIM, PubMed

  • Epigenetic Changes: DNA methylation, histone modifications affecting gene expression in disease

    Search first: ENCODE, Roadmap Epigenomics, MethBase, DiseaseMeth

  • Molecular Profiling (if available):
  • Transcriptomics/gene expression changes > Search first: GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus), ArrayExpress, GTEx, Human Cell Atlas, SRA
  • Proteomics findings > Search first: PRIDE, ProteomeXchange, Human Protein Atlas, STRING, BioGRID
  • Metabolomics signatures > Search first: MetaboLights, Metabolomics Workbench, HMDB, METLIN
  • Lipidomics alterations > Search first: LIPID MAPS, SwissLipids, LipidHome, Metabolomics Workbench
  • Genomic structural features > Search first: UCSC Genome Browser, Ensembl, NCBI, dbVar, DGV
  • Advanced Technologies (if applicable):
  • Single-cell analysis findings (cell-type specific mechanisms, cellular heterogeneity) > Search first: Human Cell Atlas, Single Cell Portal, GEO, CELLxGENE
  • Spatial transcriptomics findings > Search first: GEO, Spatial Research, Vizgen, 10x Genomics data
  • Multi-omics integration results > Search first: TCGA, ICGC, cBioPortal, LinkedOmics, PubMed
  • Functional genomics screens (CRISPR, RNAi) > Search first: DepMap, GenomeRNAi, PubMed, BioGRID ORCS

For each mechanism, describe: - The causal chain from initial trigger to clinical manifestation - Which mechanisms are upstream vs downstream - What cell types and biological processes are involved - Suggest GO terms for biological processes and CL terms for cell types

7. Anatomical Structures Affected

  • Organ Level:
  • Primary organs directly affected
  • Secondary organ involvement (complications, secondary effects)
  • Body systems involved (cardiovascular, nervous, digestive, respiratory, endocrine, etc.)

    Search first: Uberon, FMA (Foundational Model of Anatomy), OMIM, HPO, ICD-11, MeSH, SNOMED CT

  • Tissue and Cell Level:
  • Specific tissue types affected (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous)
  • Specific cell populations targeted (with Cell Ontology terms)

    Search first: Uberon, Human Protein Atlas, Cell Ontology, Human Cell Atlas, CellMarker, PanglaoDB

  • Subcellular Level:
  • Cellular compartments involved (mitochondria, nucleus, ER, lysosomes) (with GO Cellular Component terms)

    Search first: Gene Ontology (Cellular Component), UniProt, Human Protein Atlas

  • Localization:
  • Specific anatomical sites (with UBERON terms) > Search first: FMA, Uberon, NeuroNames (for brain), SNOMED CT
  • Lateralization (unilateral, bilateral, asymmetric) > Search first: HPO, clinical literature, imaging databases

8. Temporal Development

  • Onset:
  • Typical age of onset (congenital, pediatric, adult, geriatric)
  • Onset pattern (acute, subacute, chronic, insidious)

    Search first: OMIM, Orphanet, HPO, PubMed

  • Progression:
  • Disease stages (early, intermediate, advanced, end-stage) > Search first: Cancer Staging Manual (AJCC), WHO classifications, PubMed
  • Progression rate (rapid, slow, variable)
  • Disease course pattern (episodic, relapsing-remitting, progressive, stable)
  • Disease duration (self-limited, chronic lifelong)

    Search first: Disease registries, longitudinal cohort databases, natural history studies, PubMed, Orphanet, OMIM

  • Patterns:
  • Remission patterns (spontaneous, treatment-induced) > Search first: Clinical trial databases, disease registries, PubMed
  • Critical periods (time windows of vulnerability or opportunity for intervention) > Search first: PubMed, developmental biology databases, clinical guidelines

9. Inheritance and Population

  • Epidemiology:
  • Prevalence (cases per 100,000 at given time)
  • Incidence (new cases per 100,000 per year)

    Search first: Orphanet, CDC, WHO, GBD (Global Burden of Disease), national registries, SEER, disease registries

  • For Genetic Etiology:
  • Inheritance pattern (AD, AR, X-linked, mitochondrial, multifactorial, polygenic) > Search first: OMIM, Orphanet, ClinVar, GTR (Genetic Testing Registry)
  • Penetrance (complete, incomplete, age-dependent) > Search first: ClinVar, OMIM, PubMed, ClinGen
  • Expressivity (variable, consistent) > Search first: OMIM, ClinVar, PubMed
  • Genetic anticipation (increasing severity in successive generations) > Search first: OMIM, PubMed (especially for repeat expansion disorders)
  • Germline mosaicism > Search first: ClinVar, OMIM, genetic counseling literature, PubMed
  • Founder effects (population-specific mutations) > Search first: gnomAD, population genetics databases, PubMed
  • Consanguinity role > Search first: OMIM, population studies, genetic counseling resources
  • Carrier frequency > Search first: gnomAD, carrier screening databases, GeneReviews, GTR
  • Population Demographics:
  • Affected populations (ethnic or demographic groups with higher prevalence) > Search first: gnomAD, 1000 Genomes, PAGE Study, PubMed, population registries
  • Geographic distribution (endemic areas, regional variation) > Search first: WHO, CDC, GBD, Orphanet, geographic epidemiology databases
  • Geographic distribution of specific variants
  • Sex ratio (male:female) > Search first: Disease registries, OMIM, PubMed, epidemiological databases
  • Age distribution of affected individuals > Search first: CDC, disease registries, SEER, Orphanet

10. Diagnostics

  • Clinical Tests:
  • Laboratory tests (blood, urine, tissue chemistry, specific enzyme assays) > Search first: LOINC, LabTests Online, PubMed
  • Biomarkers (proteins, metabolites, genetic markers, circulating biomarkers) > Search first: FDA Biomarker List, BEST (Biomarkers, EndpointS, and other Tools), PubMed
  • Imaging studies (X-ray, CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound) > Search first: RadLex, DICOM, Radiopaedia, imaging databases
  • Functional tests (pulmonary function, cardiac stress tests) > Search first: LOINC, clinical guidelines, PubMed
  • Electrophysiology (EEG, EMG, ECG, nerve conduction studies) > Search first: LOINC, clinical neurophysiology databases, PubMed
  • Biopsy findings (histopathology, immunohistochemistry) > Search first: SNOMED CT, College of American Pathologists resources, PubMed
  • Pathology findings (microscopic examination) > Search first: SNOMED CT, Digital Pathology databases, PubMed
  • Genetic Testing:

    Search first: GTR (Genetic Testing Registry), GeneReviews, ClinGen

  • Overview of recommended genetic testing approach
  • Whole genome sequencing (WGS) utility > Search first: GTR, ClinVar, GEL (Genomics England), gnomAD
  • Whole exome sequencing (WES) utility > Search first: GTR, ClinVar, OMIM, GeneMatcher
  • Gene panels (which panels, which genes) > Search first: GTR, ClinVar, laboratory-specific databases
  • Single gene testing > Search first: GTR, ClinVar, OMIM, GeneReviews
  • Chromosomal microarray (CMA) > Search first: DECIPHER, ClinVar, dbVar, ECARUCA
  • Karyotyping > Search first: Chromosome Abnormality Database, ClinVar, cytogenetics resources
  • FISH > Search first: ClinVar, cytogenetics databases, PubMed
  • Mitochondrial DNA testing > Search first: MITOMAP, MSeqDR, ClinVar, GTR
  • Repeat expansion testing > Search first: GTR, ClinVar, repeat expansion databases, PubMed
  • Omics-Based Diagnostics (if applicable):
  • RNA sequencing / transcriptomics > Search first: GEO, ArrayExpress, GTEx, RNA-seq databases
  • Proteomics > Search first: PRIDE, ProteomeXchange, FDA Biomarker database
  • Metabolomics > Search first: MetaboLights, Metabolomics Workbench, HMDB
  • Epigenomics > Search first: GEO, ENCODE, Roadmap Epigenomics, MethBase
  • Liquid biopsy > Search first: COSMIC, ClinVar, liquid biopsy databases, PubMed
  • Clinical Criteria:
  • Standardized diagnostic criteria (DSM, ICD, society guidelines) > Search first: DSM-5, ICD-11, clinical society guidelines, UpToDate
  • Differential diagnosis (other conditions to rule out, with distinguishing features) > Search first: DynaMed, UpToDate, clinical decision support systems
  • Screening:
  • Screening methods for asymptomatic individuals (newborn screening, carrier screening, cascade screening) > Search first: ACMG recommendations, CDC newborn screening, GTR

11. Outcome/Prognosis

  • Survival and Mortality:
  • Survival rate (5-year, 10-year, overall) > Search first: SEER, cancer registries, disease-specific registries, PubMed
  • Life expectancy (with and without treatment if applicable) > Search first: Orphanet, disease registries, actuarial databases, PubMed
  • Mortality rate > Search first: CDC, WHO, GBD, national mortality databases
  • Disease-specific mortality (deaths directly attributable to disease) > Search first: Disease registries, CDC Wonder, GBD, PubMed
  • Morbidity and Function:
  • Morbidity (disease-related disability and health impacts) > Search first: GBD, WHO, disability databases, PubMed
  • Disability outcomes (long-term functional impairments) > Search first: ICF (International Classification of Functioning), disability registries
  • Quality of life measures (EQ-5D, SF-36, PROMIS, disease-specific tools) > Search first: EQ-5D database, SF-36, PROMIS, PubMed
  • Disease Course:
  • Complications (secondary problems: infections, organ failure, etc.) > Search first: ICD codes, disease registries, clinical databases, PubMed
  • Recovery potential (likelihood and extent of recovery, with vs without treatment) > Search first: Natural history studies, rehabilitation databases, PubMed
  • Prediction:
  • Prognostic factors (age, disease severity, biomarkers, treatment response) > Search first: Prognostic models databases, clinical calculators, PubMed
  • Prognostic biomarkers (molecular markers predicting disease course) > Search first: FDA Biomarker database, PubMed, cancer prognostic databases

12. Treatment

  • Pharmacotherapy:
  • Pharmacological treatments (drug names, drug classes, mechanisms of action) > Search first: DrugBank, RxNorm, ATC classification, DailyMed, FDA databases
  • Pharmacogenomics (how genetic variants affect drug metabolism, efficacy, toxicity) > Search first: PharmGKB, CPIC (Clinical Pharmacogenetics), FDA Table of PGx Biomarkers
  • Advanced Therapeutics:
  • Gene therapy (viral vectors, CRISPR, gene replacement, gene editing) > Search first: ClinicalTrials.gov, FDA gene therapy database, ASGCT resources
  • Cell therapy (stem cell transplant, CAR-T, cellular therapeutics) > Search first: ClinicalTrials.gov, FDA cell therapy database, FACT standards
  • RNA-based therapies (ASOs, siRNA, mRNA therapies) > Search first: ClinicalTrials.gov, FDA approvals, PubMed
  • Targeted therapies (treatments directed at specific molecular targets) > Search first: My Cancer Genome, OncoKB, ClinicalTrials.gov, FDA approvals
  • Immunotherapies (checkpoint inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies) > Search first: Cancer Immunotherapy Database, FDA approvals, ClinicalTrials.gov
  • Surgical and Interventional:
  • Surgical interventions (types of surgery, timing, outcomes) > Search first: CPT codes, surgical registries, clinical guidelines, PubMed
  • Supportive and Rehabilitative:
  • Supportive care (symptom management, pain control, nutrition) > Search first: Clinical guidelines, Cochrane Library, PubMed
  • Rehabilitation (physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy) > Search first: Rehabilitation medicine databases, clinical guidelines, PubMed
  • Experimental:
  • Experimental treatments in clinical trials (with NCT identifiers if available) > Search first: ClinicalTrials.gov, EU Clinical Trials Register, WHO ICTRP
  • Treatment Outcomes:
  • Treatment response rates > Search first: Clinical trial databases, FDA reviews, systematic reviews, PubMed
  • Side effects and adverse events > Search first: FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS), MedWatch, PubMed
  • Treatment Strategy:
  • Treatment algorithms (clinical pathways, decision trees) > Search first: Clinical practice guidelines, NCCN Guidelines, UpToDate
  • Combination therapies > Search first: ClinicalTrials.gov, treatment guidelines, PubMed
  • Personalized medicine approaches (genotype-guided treatment) > Search first: My Cancer Genome, CIViC, PharmGKB, precision medicine databases

For each treatment, suggest MAXO (Medical Action Ontology) terms where applicable.

13. Prevention

  • Prevention Levels:
  • Primary prevention (preventing disease occurrence: vaccination, risk factor modification) > Search first: CDC, WHO, USPSTF recommendations, Cochrane Library
  • Secondary prevention (early detection and treatment: screening programs, early intervention) > Search first: USPSTF, CDC screening guidelines, WHO
  • Tertiary prevention (preventing complications in those with disease) > Search first: Clinical guidelines, disease management protocols, PubMed
  • Immunization: Vaccine strategies (if applicable)

    Search first: CDC vaccine schedules, WHO immunization, FDA vaccine database

  • Screening and Early Detection:
  • Screening programs (population-based: newborn screening, cancer screening) > Search first: CDC screening programs, USPSTF, cancer screening databases
  • Genetic screening (carrier screening, preimplantation genetic diagnosis, prenatal testing) > Search first: ACMG recommendations, ACOG guidelines, GTR
  • Risk stratification (identifying high-risk individuals for targeted prevention) > Search first: Risk prediction models, clinical calculators, PubMed
  • Behavioral Interventions: Lifestyle modifications to reduce risk

    Search first: CDC, WHO, behavioral intervention databases, Cochrane Library

  • Counseling: Genetic counseling (risk assessment, family planning guidance)

    Search first: NSGC resources, ACMG guidelines, GeneReviews

  • Public Health:
  • Public health interventions (sanitation, vector control, health education) > Search first: CDC, WHO, public health databases, PubMed
  • Environmental interventions (reducing environmental risk factors) > Search first: EPA databases, WHO environmental health, PubMed
  • Prophylaxis: Preventive medications or procedures

    Search first: Clinical guidelines, FDA approvals, PubMed

14. Other Species / Natural Disease

  • Taxonomy: Species affected (with NCBI Taxon identifiers)

    Search first: NCBI Taxonomy

  • Breed: Specific breeds affected (with VBO identifiers if applicable)

    Search first: VBO (Vertebrate Breed Ontology)

  • Gene: Orthologous genes in other species (with NCBI Gene IDs)

    Search first: NCBI Gene

  • Natural Disease:
  • Naturally occurring disease in other species (companion animals, wildlife) > Search first: OMIA (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals), VetCompass, PubMed
  • Veterinary relevance and importance in animal health > Search first: OMIA, veterinary databases, PubMed
  • Comparative Biology:
  • Comparative pathology (similarities and differences across species) > Search first: OMIA, comparative pathology databases, PubMed
  • Evolutionary conservation of disease mechanisms > Search first: HomoloGene, OrthoMCL, Alliance of Genome Resources
  • Transmission (if applicable):
  • Zoonotic potential > Search first: CDC zoonotic diseases, WHO zoonoses, GIDEON
  • Cross-species susceptibility > Search first: NCBI Taxonomy, veterinary databases, PubMed

15. Model Organisms

  • Model Types:
  • Model organism type (mammalian, invertebrate, cellular, in vitro) > Search first: Alliance of Genome Resources, model organism databases
  • Specific model systems (mouse, rat, zebrafish, Drosophila, C. elegans, yeast, cell lines, organoids, iPSCs) > Search first: MGI, RGD, ZFIN, FlyBase, WormBase, SGD, ATCC, Cellosaurus
  • Induced models (drug treatment, surgical intervention, environmental manipulation) > Search first: MGI, model organism databases, PubMed
  • Genetic Models:
  • Types available (knockout, knock-in, transgenic, conditional, humanized) > Search first: MGI, IMPC, KOMP, EuMMCR, IMSR
  • Model Characteristics:
  • Phenotype recapitulation (how well model reproduces human disease features) > Search first: Model organism databases, comparative studies, PubMed
  • Model limitations (aspects of human disease not captured) > Search first: Model organism databases, PubMed, review articles
  • Applications:
  • Research applications (what aspects of disease can be studied) > Search first: Model organism databases, PubMed
  • Resources:
  • Model databases > Search first: MGI, RGD, ZFIN, FlyBase, WormBase, IMSR, EMMA, MMRRC

Citation Requirements

  • Cite primary literature (PMID preferred) for all mechanistic and clinical claims
  • Prioritize recent reviews and landmark papers
  • Include direct quotes from abstracts where possible to support key statements
  • Distinguish evidence source types: human clinical, model organism, in vitro, computational

Output Format

Structure your response as a comprehensive narrative organized by the sections above. For each section, provide: - Factual content with specific details (numbers, percentages, gene names, variant nomenclature) - Ontology term suggestions (HPO, GO, CL, UBERON, CHEBI, MAXO, MONDO) where applicable - Evidence citations with PMIDs - Direct quotes from abstracts to support key claims - Clear indication when information is not available or not applicable for this disease

This report will be used to populate a disease knowledge base entry with: - Pathophysiology descriptions with causal chains - Gene/protein annotations (HGNC, GO terms) - Phenotype associations (HP terms) with frequencies - Cell type involvement (CL terms) - Anatomical locations (UBERON terms) - Chemical entities (CHEBI terms) - Treatment annotations (MAXO terms) - Evidence items with PMIDs and exact abstract quotes - Epidemiology, prognosis, diagnostic, and prevention information - Animal model descriptions with phenotype recapitulation details

Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) — Disease Characteristics Research Report (Psychiatric)

Date prepared: 2026-04-28
Primary recent anchors: Nature Reviews Disease Primers (Dec 2024) and Psychological Medicine meta-analysis (Dec 2024 online) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, liu2024theefficacyof pages 1-2)

1. Disease information

1.1 Concise overview (current understanding)

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an obsessive–compulsive and related disorder characterized by an intense, persistent preoccupation with perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable (or are only slight) to others, accompanied by repetitive behaviors or mental acts (e.g., checking, camouflaging, comparing) and associated distress/impairment (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11).

1.2 Key identifiers and classification

  • ICD-11 code: 6B21 Body dysmorphic disorder (explicitly identified and defined in the ICD-11 OCRD grouping) (sjogren2019thediagnosticworkup pages 2-4, sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).
  • Verbatim ICD-11 essential-feature description (as reproduced in Sjögren 2019): persistent preoccupation with perceived defects (unnoticeable or slight to others), excessive self-consciousness often with ideas of reference, and repetitive/excessive behaviors (repeated examination, camouflaging/alteration attempts, or marked avoidance) that cause significant distress or impairment (sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).
  • DSM-5 / DSM-5-TR context: BDD is placed in Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders and includes an insight specifier and a muscle dysmorphia specifier (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11).
  • Other identifiers requested (MONDO, MeSH, OMIM, Orphanet): not retrievable from the tool-sourced evidence corpus used here; therefore not asserted.

1.3 Common synonyms / alternative names

  • Body dysmorphia (colloquial; not a formal diagnosis in ICD/DSM) (loewen2024prevalenceofbody pages 1-2).
  • Muscle dysmorphia (DSM specifier; often conceptualized as a BDD specifier/subtype) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11).

1.4 Evidence-source type

Information in this report is derived from aggregated disease-level resources (e.g., Nature Reviews Disease Primers), systematic reviews/meta-analyses, and primary human studies (population surveys, RCTs, fMRI studies), rather than individual EHR-only case series (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, liu2024theefficacyof pages 1-2).

2. Etiology

2.1 Disease causal factors (multifactorial)

BDD etiology is described as an interplay of genetic and environmental factors, with comparatively limited biological research versus other OCRDs (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

2.2 Risk factors

Genetic liability - Twin studies suggest heritability ~37–49% for BDD-related phenotypes, consistent with partial genetic liability (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4). - A key knowledge gap is that no BDD GWAS exists yet, limiting locus-level inference (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

Environmental / psychosocial risk - Environmental stressors implicated include bullying and childhood trauma, consistent with diathesis–stress models (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

2.3 Protective factors

No specific genetic or environmental protective factors were identified in the retrieved evidence; thus this remains insufficiently characterized in this report.

2.4 Gene–environment interactions

No explicit GxE interaction studies were identified in the retrieved evidence; thus not currently characterizable here.

3. Phenotypes (clinical presentation)

3.1 Core symptoms and behaviors (with frequency data when available)

Core phenotype: appearance-related preoccupation, self-focused attention/ideas of reference, repetitive behaviors/mental acts, avoidance, and impaired insight (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11, sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).

Common body areas of preoccupation (ranges across samples): - Skin 50–92%, hair 47–64%, nose 33–64%, face 27–64%, teeth 30–51%, weight 29–51%, stomach 23–53%, eyes 20–43%, thighs 17–42% (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 32-33).

Common repetitive behaviors (prevalence ranges across samples): - Comparing with others 87–97%, mirror checking 85–92%, camouflaging 70–94%, grooming 59–72%, reassurance seeking 53–73%, applying make-up 51–65%, touching body areas 47–59%, distraction techniques 45–55%, clothes changing 44–56% (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 32-33).

Time burden - BDD thoughts/behaviors are described as time-consuming, averaging about 3–8 hours/day in one clinical overview source (champlain2015bodydysmorphicdisorder pages 108-111).

Insight/delusionality - Insight is on a continuum from good to absent (delusional conviction); poor/absent insight can impede help-seeking (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11, sjogren2019thediagnosticworkup pages 4-5).

3.2 Age of onset, severity, and progression

  • Onset is typically before age 18 in ~two-thirds of cases (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).
  • A population-survey summary in Spain reports mean age of onset 16.9 years (and in their web sample, mean age of participants meeting BDD criteria was 23.5 years) (loewen2024prevalenceofbody pages 1-2).

3.3 Functional impact / quality of life

BDD can lead to profound social/educational/occupational impairment (including isolation/housebound behavior) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11). A large impairment signal is also reflected by proportions not working (36%) or not in school (32%) in cited clinical cohorts (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 14-16).

3.4 Suggested HPO terms (examples)

(Ontology suggestions; exact mapping should be validated against HPO) - Preoccupation/obsessional thoughts: Obsessive thoughts (HP:0000722) - Compulsions/repetitive behaviors: Compulsive behavior (HP:0008763) - Avoidance: Social withdrawal (HP:0000740) - Poor insight/delusional conviction: Delusions (HP:0000746) - Anxiety/depression commonly comorbid: Anxiety (HP:0000739); Depression (HP:0000716)

4. Genetic / molecular information

4.1 Causal genes and pathogenic variants

BDD is not currently characterized as a monogenic disorder, and the retrieved evidence does not support specific causal genes/variants (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

4.2 Polygenic liability

  • Twin-based heritability estimates support polygenic liability (37–49%), but gene discovery is limited and GWAS is absent in the cited primer (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

4.3 Epigenetics / chromosomal abnormalities

No BDD-specific epigenetic or chromosomal-abnormality evidence was retrieved.

5. Environmental information

BDD risk appears influenced by psychosocial exposures (e.g., bullying/trauma) and sociocultural appearance pressures; the retrieved evidence supports bullying/trauma as relevant stressors but does not provide toxin/radiation/infectious triggers (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

6. Mechanism / pathophysiology

6.1 Conceptual causal chain (integrated model)

A working model supported by the 2024 primer and human neuroimaging studies is that genetic liability + adverse developmental/social experiences predispose to cognitive-affective and perceptual processing alterations (e.g., attention biases, aberrant visual processing of faces/bodies). These alterations contribute to persistent appearance-related preoccupations, compulsions/avoidance, and functional impairment; poor insight and ideas of reference can maintain the cycle and delay care (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11).

6.2 Visual processing and attention circuitry (human neuroimaging)

  • A mechanistic fMRI + eye-tracking experiment in 37 unmedicated adults with BDD and 30 controls tested “visual-attention modification” (fixating gaze at the image center while viewing one’s face). The study reports that modulated viewing increased fixation duration and strengthened connectivity from occipital to parietal dorsal visual stream regions in BDD, with persistence into subsequent natural viewing (wong2022neuralandbehavioral pages 1-2). The authors conclude that holding gaze may increase dorsal stream communication and “facilitating global/holistic visual processing,” relevant to perceptual retraining approaches (wong2022neuralandbehavioral pages 1-2).

6.3 Serotonergic mechanisms and novel interventions (translational/experimental)

  • An open-label neuroimaging study administered single-dose psilocybin (25 mg) with psychological support to 8 adults with moderate-to-severe nondelusional BDD and found BDD-YBOCS decreases at week 1 and week 12 (p<0.001), with rs-fMRI connectivity changes (ECN and ECN–DMN/Salience links) predicting week-1 improvement; authors emphasize the small sample and uncontrolled design (zhu2024singledosepsilocybinalters pages 1-3).

6.4 Suggested GO biological process terms (examples)

(Ontology suggestions; validate in GO) - Visual perception; attention; response to serotonin; fear response; learning.

6.5 Suggested CL cell types (examples)

Neural circuitry models implicate cortical and limbic systems; plausible CL terms include cortical pyramidal neuron and GABAergic interneuron (conceptual; not directly evidenced in retrieved texts).

7. Anatomical structures affected

BDD is psychiatric/behavioral but implicates brain systems involved in visual, attentional, and emotional processing.

7.1 Organ/system level (UBERON suggestions)

  • Brain (UBERON:0000955), including cerebral cortex (UBERON:0000956) and visual cortex (UBERON term selection dependent on knowledge-base conventions).

7.2 Tissue/cell and subcellular levels

No disease-specific tissue pathology or subcellular lesions are described in the retrieved evidence; abnormalities are primarily functional-network level (wong2022neuralandbehavioral pages 1-2, zhu2024singledosepsilocybinalters pages 1-3).

8. Temporal development

8.1 Onset and course

BDD typically begins in adolescence (two-thirds before 18), and can become chronic with substantial impairment if untreated (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

8.2 Remission patterns

  • CBT gains may be maintained up to 4 years in follow-up studies cited in the primer (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).
  • SSRI continuation reduces relapse in an escitalopram relapse-prevention trial (18% relapse on continued escitalopram vs 40% on placebo over 6 months) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).

9. Inheritance and population

9.1 Epidemiology (recent quantitative data)

  • General adult prevalence (high-income countries): ~2% (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3).
  • Children <12: ~0.1%; adolescents: ~1.9%, with adolescent girls 3.4% vs boys 0.4% (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).
  • Clinical settings (approximate): ~7% inpatient psychiatry, 13% cosmetic surgery, 11% dermatology (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).
  • Plastic/reconstructive surgery populations (meta-analysis, 65 studies; n=17,107): 18.6% (kaleeny2024bodydysmorphicdisorder pages 12-14).
  • Spain web-based survey (Jan 2024, n=2091): 15.2% met BDDQ criteria, with higher proportions in women and students; interpretation should consider sampling and survey methodology (loewen2024prevalenceofbody pages 1-2).

9.2 Sex ratio and age distribution

  • Female preponderance appears stronger in youth; adult sex differences are described as smaller in the primer (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

9.3 Comorbidity (visual evidence)

The primer reports high psychiatric comorbidity; Figure 1 in the primer summarizes comorbidity prevalence patterns in adults vs young people (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. media f77f1d9b).

10. Diagnostics

10.1 Clinical criteria (ICD-11/DSM framing)

Diagnosis requires: appearance preoccupation + repetitive behaviors/mental acts and associated distress/impairment; eating-disorder explanations should be excluded (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11, sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).

10.2 Screening and diagnostic instruments

  • Brief screening tools: BDDQ; COPS (cosmetic procedure screening) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12). Dermatology/cosmetic variants include BDDQ-DV and DCQ (sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).
  • Structured/semi-structured diagnostic interviews: BDD Module; DIAMOND; SCID BDD module referenced in diagnostic work-up literature (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12, sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).
  • Severity scales: clinician-rated BDD-YBOCS and BDD-YBOCS-A (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12).
  • Response definition: ≥30% reduction in BDD-YBOCS/BDD-YBOCS-A (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12).
  • Partial/full remission: BDD-YBOCS ≤16 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12).
  • No laboratory tests are required/used diagnostically in the diagnostic work-up review (sjogren2019thediagnosticworkupa pages 2-4).

10.3 Differential diagnosis (examples)

Differentials include eating disorders (shape/weight focus), OCD, psychotic disorders, social anxiety disorder, trichotillomania/excoriation disorder, gender dysphoria, and other OCRDs; careful assessment of insight and symptom focus is emphasized (sjogren2019thediagnosticworkup pages 4-5, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 9-11).

11. Outcome / prognosis

11.1 Suicidality and mortality risk

  • Lifetime suicide attempt prevalence is reported as 10–35% in the 2024 primer synthesis (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).
  • A Swedish population-based study cited in the primer found increased suicide risk: HR 3.47 (95% CI 1.76–6.85) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4).

11.2 Morbidity and disability

BDD is associated with marked quality-of-life impairment and functional disability, including occupational and educational non-participation (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 14-16).

12. Treatment

12.1 Evidence-based first-line treatments

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), tailored for BDD - The 2024 primer describes CBT as the most evidence-based psychotherapy; a meta-analysis of seven RCTs found a large effect (d = −1.22) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14). - Response rates (≥30% BDD-YBOCS reduction) range ~40–82% (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14). - Core components include psychoeducation, formulation, exposure with response prevention, behavioral experiments, cognitive restructuring, plus techniques like mirror retraining/imagery rescripting/self-compassion (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).

Digital/Internet CBT (implementation-relevant) - Digital CBT shows sizable effects (e.g., d = 1.44 vs waitlist; d = 0.95 vs supportive therapy) with relatively low therapist input, supporting scalability (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14). - A 2024 meta-analysis across 15 RCTs found that mode of delivery (face-to-face vs digital) did not significantly moderate outcomes, and pooled effects improved BDD symptoms (g = −0.97) and QoL (g = 0.44) (liu2024theefficacyof pages 1-2).

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) - SSRIs (fluoxetine, sertraline, escitalopram) are first-line pharmacotherapy; RCTs show response rates 53–65% vs 18–35% in control groups (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14). - Relapse prevention: continued escitalopram reduced relapse (18% vs 40% over 6 months) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).

12.2 Augmentation and non-first-line options

  • Evidence for antipsychotic augmentation is limited; one RCT found pimozide augmentation of fluoxetine was not better than placebo (response rates ~18% in both arms) (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 14-16).

12.3 Experimental/novel therapeutics

  • Psilocybin open-label trial with neuroimaging suggests symptom improvements with network-level predictors, but requires larger controlled trials (zhu2024singledosepsilocybinalters pages 1-3).

12.4 Real-world implementation and applications

  • High BDD prevalence in cosmetic/plastic surgery settings motivates routine preoperative screening and multidisciplinary care, with the 2024 plastic-surgery meta-analysis highlighting screening needs and prevalence (18.6%) (kaleeny2024bodydysmorphicdisorder pages 12-14).
  • The 2024 primer notes barriers to evidence-based care: poor insight, cosmetic-procedure seeking, stigma, scarcity of trained CBT therapists, and limited dissemination outside specialist centers (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).

12.5 Suggested MAXO terms (examples)

(Ontology suggestions; validate in MAXO) - Cognitive behavioral therapy; Exposure and response prevention; Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor therapy; Internet-based psychotherapy; Suicide risk assessment.

13. Prevention

Evidence-based prevention strategies are described as lacking; the primer emphasizes need for early detection and dissemination of effective treatments rather than established primary prevention programs (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14).

14. Other species / natural disease

No validated naturally occurring BDD analogs in other species were identified in the retrieved evidence.

15. Model organisms

No model-organism systems were identified in the retrieved evidence. Current mechanistic work is largely human (neuroimaging/behavioral) (wong2022neuralandbehavioral pages 1-2, zhu2024singledosepsilocybinalters pages 1-3).

Key quantitative snapshot (2023–2024–anchored)

Domain Statistic Population/Setting Notes/Definition Source
Epidemiology ~2% point prevalence General adult population in high-income countries Community-based adult prevalence estimate Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 0.1% Children aged <12 years Youth prevalence reported as low before adolescence Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 1.9% Adolescents Prevalence rises in adolescence Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 3.4% vs 0.4% Adolescent girls vs boys Female preponderance in youth Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology ~7% Inpatient psychiatry settings Clinical setting prevalence higher than community prevalence Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 13% Cosmetic surgery settings Approximate prevalence in cosmetic surgery clinics Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 11% Dermatology settings Approximate prevalence in dermatology clinics Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Epidemiology 18.6% Aesthetic and reconstructive plastic surgery populations Meta-analysis of 65 studies; 17,107 patients Kaleeny & Janis, 2024 (kaleeny2024bodydysmorphicdisorder pages 12-14)
Suicidality 10–35% Individuals with BDD Lifetime suicide attempt prevalence across studies Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Suicidality HR 3.47 (95% CI 1.76–6.85) Swedish population-level cohort >3-fold increased risk of death by suicide Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 3-4)
Psychotherapy d = -1.22 CBT for BDD Meta-analysis of 7 RCTs found a large effect on BDD symptoms Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14)
Psychotherapy 40–82% response CBT-treated BDD samples Response commonly defined as >=30% reduction on BDD-YBOCS Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 11-12)
Psychotherapy d = 1.44 vs waitlist; d = 0.95 vs supportive therapy Digitalized CBT Evidence suggests benefit comparable to face-to-face formats Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14)
Psychotherapy g = -0.97 Psychological treatments across 15 RCTs (n=905) Meta-analysis: improvement in BDD symptoms; benefits sustained 1–6 months Liu et al., 2024 (liu2024theefficacyof pages 1-2)
Pharmacotherapy 53–65% vs 18–35% SSRI trials vs controls First-line SSRIs include fluoxetine, sertraline, escitalopram Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14)
Pharmacotherapy 18% vs 40% relapse over 6 months Escitalopram responders continuing SSRI vs placebo Continuation treatment reduced relapse Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 12-14, ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 14-16)
Functional impact 36% not working; 32% not in school Individuals with BDD Indicates substantial occupational/educational impairment Rück et al., 2024 (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 14-16)

Table: This table summarizes key epidemiologic, suicidality, treatment-response, and functional-impact statistics for body dysmorphic disorder from the gathered evidence. It is useful as a compact evidence snapshot for clinical or knowledge-base reporting.

Visual evidence (comorbidity patterns)

Figure 1 from the 2024 Nature Reviews Disease Primers article provides a visual summary of psychiatric comorbidity prevalence in adults vs young people with BDD (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. media f77f1d9b).

Reference URLs and publication dates (from retrieved sources)

  • Rück C, Mataix-Cols D, Feusner JD, et al. Body dysmorphic disorder. Nature Reviews Disease Primers. Dec 2024. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-024-00577-z (ruck2024bodydysmorphicdisorder. pages 1-3)
  • Liu Y, Lai L, Wilhelm S, Phillips KA, et al. The efficacy of psychological treatments on body dysmorphic disorder: a meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychological Medicine. First published online 03 Dec 2024. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291724002733 (liu2024theefficacyof pages 1-2)
  • Loewen Á, Blasco-Fontecilla H, Li C, et al. Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in the Spanish Population: Cross-Sectional Web-Based Questionnaire Study. JMIR Formative Research. Jan 2024. https://doi.org/10.2196/46515 (loewen2024prevalenceofbody pages 1-2)
  • Kaleeny JD, Janis JE. Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Aesthetic and Reconstructive Plastic Surgery—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Healthcare (Basel). Jul 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12131333 (kaleeny2024bodydysmorphicdisorder pages 12-14)
  • Wong W-W, Rangaprakash D, Diaz-Fong JP, et al. Neural and behavioral effects of modification of visual attention in body dysmorphic disorder. Translational Psychiatry. Aug 2022. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-022-02099-2 (wong2022neuralandbehavioral pages 1-2)
  • Zhu X, Zhang C, Hellerstein D, et al. Single-dose psilocybin alters resting state functional networks in patients with body dysmorphic disorder. Psychedelics (NY). Published in final form 2025 (study reports trial ID NCT04656301). https://doi.org/10.61373/pp024r.0028 (zhu2024singledosepsilocybinalters pages 1-3)

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