Polycystic Kidney Disease

Mendelian MONDO:0020642 Pathograph 39 Show in embeddings browser Genetic Kidney Disease Ciliopathy

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the development of multiple fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys. The autosomal dominant form (ADPKD) is one of the most common inherited kidney diseases, affecting approximately 1 in 500-1000 people. ADPKD is caused by mutations in PKD1 or PKD2 genes and typically presents in adulthood with progressive renal enlargement, hypertension, and eventual kidney failure. Autosomal recessive PKD (ARPKD) is less common and typically presents in infancy or childhood.

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2
Inheritance
5
Pathophys.
23
Phenotypes
39
Pathograph
10
Genes
4
Medical Actions
4
Subtypes
3
Differentials
2
Datasets
3
Models
2
References
2
Deep Research
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Inheritance

2
Autosomal dominant inheritance HP:0000006
Autosomal dominant inheritance
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
Orphanet classifies ADPKD as autosomal dominant.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by progressive development of kidney cysts and is the most common inherited kidney disorder worldwide."
JAMA review confirms autosomal dominant inheritance for the most common PKD form.
Autosomal recessive inheritance HP:0000007
Autosomal recessive inheritance
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"Autosomal recessive"
Orphanet records autosomal recessive inheritance for ARPKD.
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is the recessive form of PKD that has an incidence of 1 in 20 000"
Review confirms autosomal recessive inheritance for the ARPKD subtype.
◆

Subtypes

4
Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD) MONDO:0004691
PKD1 hgnc:9008 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in PKD1 (hgnc:9008). hgnc:9008 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. PKD2 hgnc:9009 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in PKD2 (hgnc:9009). hgnc:9009 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. GANAB hgnc:4138 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in GANAB (hgnc:4138). hgnc:4138 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. DNAJB11 hgnc:14889 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in DNAJB11 (hgnc:14889). hgnc:14889 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. ALG5 hgnc:20266 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in ALG5 (hgnc:20266). hgnc:20266 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. ALG9 hgnc:15672 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in ALG9 (hgnc:15672). hgnc:15672 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. IFT140 hgnc:29077 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in IFT140 (hgnc:29077). hgnc:29077 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. Autosomal dominant inheritance
Most common form, caused by PKD1 or PKD2 mutations, typically presenting in adulthood.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"MONDO:0004691 | Exact"
Orphanet cross-reference maps ORPHA:730 exactly to MONDO:0004691.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews names the seven genes in which a single heterozygous variant establishes the molecular diagnosis of the dominant form, which is the set bound in this row.
Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD) MONDO:0009889
PKHD1 hgnc:9016 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in PKHD1 (hgnc:9016). hgnc:9016 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. DZIP1L hgnc:26551 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in DZIP1L (hgnc:26551). hgnc:26551 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. Autosomal recessive inheritance
Less common form caused by PKHD1 mutations, presenting in infancy or childhood with more severe phenotype.
  • PKD4
  • PKD5
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"MONDO:0009889 | Exact"
Orphanet cross-reference maps ORPHA:731 exactly to MONDO:0009889.
CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"DZIP1L | HGNC:26551 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
ClinGen grades the DZIP1L relationship with the recessive form Definitive, which is why this row carries a second gene beside PKHD1.
Polycystic kidney disease 4 (PKHD1) MONDO:0033004
PKHD1 hgnc:9016 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in PKHD1 (hgnc:9016). hgnc:9016 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. Autosomal recessive inheritance
The PKHD1-defined form of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease, and the form that accounts for most of it. Biallelic loss of function removes fibrocystin, a transmembrane glycoprotein of the primary cilium, from collecting-duct epithelium; the hepatic component is a ductal plate malformation producing congenital hepatic fibrosis.
Show evidence (4 references)
CGGV:assertion_06fb7576-e842-4e52-9284-0762bb7a05c6-2020-11-11T050000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"PKHD1 | HGNC:9016 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
ClinGen grades the PKHD1 relationship with the recessive form Definitive, and records loss of function as the mechanism.
CGGV:assertion_06fb7576-e842-4e52-9284-0762bb7a05c6-2020-11-11T050000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
The ClinGen evidence summary describes the hepatic lesion of this form as a ductal plate malformation with congenital hepatic fibrosis.
PMID:20301501 SUPPORT REVIEW SYNTHESIS Human Clinical
"The molecular diagnosis of ARPKD-PKHD1 is established in a proband with suggestive findings and biallelic pathogenic variants in PKHD1 identified by molecular genetic testing."
The GeneReviews chapter for this form states the biallelic requirement, which is the molecular definition of the row.
+ 1 more reference
Polycystic kidney disease 5 (DZIP1L) MONDO:0033281
DZIP1L hgnc:26551 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this subtype is caused by variation in this gene This subtype is caused by variation in DZIP1L (hgnc:26551). hgnc:26551 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. Autosomal recessive inheritance
The DZIP1L-defined form of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. DZIP1L localizes to centrioles and to the distal ends of basal bodies and interacts with septin2, which maintains the periciliary diffusion barrier at the ciliary transition zone. So this form reaches the same ciliary endpoint as the PKHD1 form by a different route: translocation of polycystin-1 and polycystin-2 into the ciliary membrane is compromised. Reported patients had polycystic, enlarged kidneys with reduced cortico-medullary differentiation, arterial hypertension and end-stage renal disease, and there was limited evidence for a liver phenotype in the reported cohort.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:28530676 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Here, we describe mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes DAZ interacting protein 1-like, in patients with ARPKD."
The report that established a second gene for the recessive form, in patients ascertained with ARPKD.
CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"Patients with homozygous DZIP1L pathogenic variants were reported to exhibit polycystic kidneys, enlarged kidneys, reduced cortico-medullary differentiation, arterial hypertension and end-stage renal disease. Of note, there was limited evidence for a liver phenotype in this cohort of ARPKD patients."
ClinGen's evidence summary is the source for the renal presentation and for the weaker hepatic involvement stated in this row's description.
⚙

Pathophysiology

5
Vasopressin/cAMP-Driven Cyst Expansion
Elevated vasopressin signaling via V2 receptors increases cAMP in tubular epithelial cells, driving chloride and fluid secretion into cysts and promoting cyst wall growth. Blocking V2 signaling slows total kidney volume expansion.
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cell type This pathophysiological event involves nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
cAMP/PKA signal transduction GO:0141156 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves cAMP/PKA signal transduction (GO:0141156). GO:0141156 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology.
Downstream
Multiple Renal Cysts
Enlarged Kidney
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT
"the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume"
Tolvaptan’s effect on kidney volume underscores vasopressin/cAMP signaling as a key driver of cyst expansion.
Epithelial Proliferation and Kidney Enlargement
Reduced polycystin-mediated restraint on epithelial proliferation leads to progressive cyst wall growth and parenchymal compression, increasing total kidney volume and reducing renal function.
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cell type This pathophysiological event involves nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
regulation of cell proliferation GO:0042127 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves regulation of cell proliferation, annotated with regulation of cell population proliferation (GO:0042127). GO:0042127 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology.
Downstream
Chronic Kidney Disease
Hypertension
Flank Pain
Hematuria
Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections
Nephrolithiasis
Albuminuria
Pyelonephritis
Pulmonary Hypoplasia
Oligohydramnios
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT
"slowed the growth in total kidney volume and the decline in the estimated glomerular filtration rate"
Dampening kidney volume growth parallels slower GFR loss, linking cyst epithelial proliferation to functional decline.
Defective Polycystin-1 Maturation in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
Polycystin-1 is a membrane protein, and its production depends on the glycan-processing and chaperone machinery of the endoplasmic reticulum. The minor dominant cystic-kidney genes act here rather than on the polycystin complex itself: GANAB encodes the alpha subunit of glucosidase II, ALG5 adds glucose and ALG9 adds mannose to the assembling N-glycan precursor, and DNAJB11 is a co-factor of the ER chaperone BiP. Loss of any of them leaves less mature polycystin-1 to reach the cell surface and the cilium. The presentation recorded for this arm is kidneys that stay normal in size, few or no liver cysts, and late end-stage kidney disease, reached from age 62 onwards in the ALG5 series.
kidney epithelial cell CL:0002518 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cell type This pathophysiological event involves kidney epithelial cell (CL:0002518). CL:0002518 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
GANAB hgnc:4138 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves GANAB (hgnc:4138). hgnc:4138 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. DNAJB11 hgnc:14889 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves DNAJB11 (hgnc:14889). hgnc:14889 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. ALG5 hgnc:20266 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves ALG5 (hgnc:20266). hgnc:20266 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. ALG9 hgnc:15672 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves ALG9 (hgnc:15672). hgnc:15672 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee.
polycystin-1 maturation GO:0051604 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves decreased polycystin-1 maturation, annotated with protein maturation (GO:0051604). GO:0051604 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology. ↓ DECREASED N-glycan precursor assembly in the ER lumen GO:0006487 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves decreased N-glycan precursor assembly in the ER lumen, annotated with protein N-linked glycosylation (GO:0006487). GO:0006487 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology. ↓ DECREASED BiP-dependent folding of membrane proteins GO:0034975 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves decreased BiP-dependent folding of membrane proteins, annotated with protein folding in endoplasmic reticulum (GO:0034975). GO:0034975 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology. ↓ DECREASED
endoplasmic reticulum lumen GO:0005788 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cellular component This pathophysiological event involves endoplasmic reticulum lumen (GO:0005788). GO:0005788 is a cellular component from the Gene Ontology.
Downstream
Ciliary Dysfunction Failure of polycystin-1 maturation in the ER is upstream of the ciliary defect: surface and ciliary localization of polycystin-1 depends on ER processing, and restoring that processing restores the localization.
Show evidence (6 references)
PMID:31395617 SUPPORT DIRECT BACKGROUND Human Clinical
"Dominantly inherited polycystic kidney and liver diseases on the ADPKD spectrum are also caused by mutations in at least six other genes required for protein biogenesis in the endoplasmic reticulum, the loss of which results in defective production of the PKD1 gene product, the membrane protein..."
States the node's thesis: a second class of dominant cystic-kidney genes acts on ER protein biogenesis and converges on reduced polycystin-1.
PMID:27259053 SUPPORT DIRECT In Vitro
"Analysis of GANAB-null cells showed an absolute requirement of GIIα for maturation and surface and ciliary localization of the ADPKD proteins (PC1 and PC2), and reduced mature PC1 was seen in GANAB(+/-) cells."
Null and heterozygous cell lines place the GANAB requirement at polycystin maturation and at surface and ciliary delivery.
PMID:29706351 SUPPORT DIRECT In Vitro
"Characterization of DNAJB11-null cells and kidney samples from affected individuals revealed a pathogenesis associated with maturation and trafficking defects involving the ADPKD protein, PC1, and ADTKD proteins, such as UMOD."
Null cells and patient kidney tissue locate the DNAJB11 defect at PC1 maturation and trafficking.
+ 3 more references
Ciliary Dysfunction
Primary cilia act as mechanosensors in renal tubular epithelial cells. Polycystin dysfunction impairs ciliary signaling, disrupting normal tubular architecture and promoting cyst formation through increased cAMP signaling. Cilium-dependent planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling further maintains tubular geometry via oriented cell division; its disruption drives tubular dilatation and cystogenesis, placing PKD within the renal cystic-fibrotic arm of the ciliopathies.
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cell type This pathophysiological event involves nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
PKD1 hgnc:9008 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves PKD1 (hgnc:9008). hgnc:9008 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. PKD2 hgnc:9009 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves PKD2 (hgnc:9009). hgnc:9009 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. PKHD1 hgnc:9016 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves PKHD1 (hgnc:9016). hgnc:9016 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. DZIP1L hgnc:26551 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves DZIP1L (hgnc:26551). hgnc:26551 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. IFT140 hgnc:29077 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves IFT140 (hgnc:29077). hgnc:29077 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. CYS1 hgnc:18525 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this gene This pathophysiological event involves CYS1 (hgnc:18525). hgnc:18525 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee.
cilium organization GO:0044782 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves cilium organization (GO:0044782). GO:0044782 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology. cAMP/PKA signal transduction GO:0141156 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves cAMP/PKA signal transduction (GO:0141156). GO:0141156 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology.
Downstream
Hepatic Cysts
Intracranial Aneurysm
Mitral Valve Prolapse
Aortic Root Aneurysm
Pancreatic Cysts
Reduced Sperm Motility
Arachnoid Cyst
Polycystic Kidney Dysplasia
Show evidence (7 references)
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Other
"PC-1 is a membrane receptor that localizes to the primary cilium in renal epithelial cells"
Review establishes that polycystin-1 localizes to the primary cilium in renal epithelial cells, directly linking ciliary dysfunction to ADPKD pathogenesis.
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Other
"The localization of the PC-1/PC-2 complex in the primary cilium is proposed to be crucial for its function as a mechanosensory antenna of fluid flow in the kidney."
Review describes the polycystin complex as a ciliary mechanosensor, supporting the ciliary dysfunction mechanism in PKD.
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Model Organism
"disruption of OCD resulted in dilated tubules and/or cystic kidneys in a number of animal models"
Loss of cilium/PCP-dependent oriented cell division causes tubular dilatation and cystic kidneys in animal models, mechanistically linking ciliary dysfunction to cystogenesis and supporting conformance to the ciliopathy renal cystic-fibrotic module node.
+ 4 more references
Fibrosis and Inflammation
Progressive cyst growth triggers interstitial inflammation and fibrosis. Activated myofibroblasts deposit extracellular matrix, contributing to nephron loss and declining kidney function.
macrophage CL:0000235 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this cell type This pathophysiological event involves macrophage (CL:0000235). CL:0000235 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
inflammatory response GO:0006954 Gene Ontology (GO) Relation: this pathophysiological event involves this biological process This pathophysiological event involves inflammatory response (GO:0006954). GO:0006954 is a biological process from the Gene Ontology.
Downstream
Chronic Kidney Disease
Hepatic Fibrosis
Portal Hypertension
Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:34155062 SUPPORT Model Organism
"Macrophage recruitment and interstitial inflammation promote cyst growth."
Study directly demonstrates that macrophage-driven interstitial inflammation promotes cyst growth in ADPKD.
⬡

Pathograph

Use the checkboxes to hide or show graph categories. Hover nodes for evidence and cross-linked metadata.
Pathograph: causal mechanism network for Polycystic Kidney Disease Interactive directed graph showing how pathophysiology mechanisms, phenotypes, genetic factors and variants, experimental models, environmental triggers, and treatments relate through causal and linked edges.
●

Phenotypes

23
Cardiovascular 5
Hypertension FREQUENT HP:0000822 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Hypertension (HP:0000822). HP:0000822 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000822 | Hypertension | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists hypertension as frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Hypertension affects 70% to 80% of patients with ADPKD"
JAMA review confirms very high prevalence of hypertension in ADPKD patients.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Kidney manifestations include early-onset hypertension, kidney pain, and kidney insufficiency."
GeneReviews lists early-onset hypertension as a key kidney manifestation of ADPKD.
Intracranial Aneurysm OCCASIONAL Cerebral berry aneurysm HP:0007029 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Cerebral berry aneurysm (HP:0007029). HP:0007029 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0004944 | Dilatation of the cerebral artery | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists cerebral artery dilatation as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"approximately 9% to 14% develop intracranial aneurysms, which have a rupture rate of 0.57 per 1000 patient-years"
JAMA review quantifies intracranial aneurysm prevalence and rupture rate in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"the prevalence of intracranial aneurysms is fivefold higher than in the general population and further increased in those with a positive family history of aneurysms or subarachnoid hemorrhage"
GeneReviews documents increased aneurysm risk and family history effect.
Mitral Valve Prolapse OCCASIONAL HP:0001634 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Mitral valve prolapse (HP:0001634). HP:0001634 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001634 | Mitral valve prolapse | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists mitral valve prolapse as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"dilatation of the aortic root and dissection of the thoracic aorta; mitral valve prolapse; and abdominal wall hernias"
GeneReviews lists mitral valve prolapse among the extrarenal manifestations of ADPKD.
Aortic Root Aneurysm OCCASIONAL HP:0002616 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Aortic root aneurysm (HP:0002616). HP:0002616 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0002616 | Aortic root aneurysm | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists aortic root aneurysm as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"dilatation of the aortic root and dissection of the thoracic aorta; mitral valve prolapse; and abdominal wall hernias"
GeneReviews lists aortic root dilatation and thoracic aortic dissection as extrarenal manifestations.
Portal Hypertension FREQUENT HP:0001409 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Portal hypertension (HP:0001409). HP:0001409 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (1 reference)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001409 | Portal hypertension | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists portal hypertension as frequent in ARPKD.
Digestive 4
Hepatic Cysts VERY_FREQUENT HP:0001407 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Hepatic cysts (HP:0001407). HP:0001407 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001407 | Hepatic cysts | Very frequent (99-80%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists hepatic cysts as very frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"More than 90% of patients older than 35 years have hepatic cysts, which may cause abdominal discomfort and occasionally require medical or surgical intervention"
JAMA review confirms hepatic cysts as a very common manifestation in ADPKD with symptomatic burden.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"The prevalence of liver cysts increases with age and occasionally results in clinically significant severe polycystic liver disease (PLD), most often in females."
GeneReviews confirms age-related increase and female predominance of hepatic cysts.
Pancreatic Cysts OCCASIONAL HP:0001737 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Pancreatic cysts (HP:0001737). HP:0001737 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001737 | Pancreatic cysts | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists pancreatic cysts as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
GeneReviews lists pancreatic cysts among the extrarenal cystic manifestations of ADPKD.
Hepatic Fibrosis VERY_FREQUENT HP:0001395 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Hepatic fibrosis (HP:0001395). HP:0001395 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001395 | Hepatic fibrosis | Very frequent (99-80%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists hepatic fibrosis as very frequent in ARPKD.
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"characterized by cystic dilatation and ectasia of renal collecting tubules, and a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
Orphanet definition identifies congenital hepatic fibrosis as a defining feature of ARPKD.
Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis FREQUENT HP:0002612 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Congenital hepatic fibrosis (HP:0002612). HP:0002612 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0002612 | Congenital hepatic fibrosis | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists congenital hepatic fibrosis as frequent in ARPKD.
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
Orphanet definition identifies congenital hepatic fibrosis from ductal plate malformation as a defining ARPKD feature.
Genitourinary 10
Multiple Renal Cysts VERY_FREQUENT HP:0005562 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Multiple renal cysts (HP:0005562). HP:0005562 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000107 | Renal cyst | Very frequent (99-80%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists renal cysts as very frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by progressive development of kidney cysts"
JAMA review describes ADPKD as a progressive cystic kidney disease.
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume"
REPRISE trial confirms PKD as a cystic kidney disease defined by progressive kidney volume increase.
Chronic Kidney Disease FREQUENT HP:0012622 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Chronic kidney disease (HP:0012622). HP:0012622 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0012622 | Chronic kidney disease | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists chronic kidney disease as frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age"
High rate of kidney replacement therapy highlights progression to advanced CKD in ADPKD.
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"The change from baseline in the estimated GFR was -2.34 ml per minute per 1.73 m2"
Trial demonstrates progressive GFR decline in PKD patients.
Hematuria FREQUENT HP:0000790 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Hematuria (HP:0000790). HP:0000790 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000790 | Hematuria | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists hematuria as frequent in ADPKD.
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"characterized by progressive outgrowths of fluid-filled cysts from the renal epithelium, which can manifest with hematuria, urinary tract infections, hypertension, and abdominal or flank pain"
Orphanet definition explicitly lists hematuria as a clinical manifestation of ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Cyst hemorrhage and/or gross hematuria usually responds to bed rest, analgesics, and adequate hydration."
GeneReviews discusses management of cyst-related hematuria in ADPKD.
Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections OCCASIONAL HP:0000010 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Recurrent urinary tract infections (HP:0000010). HP:0000010 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000010 | Recurrent urinary tract infections | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists recurrent UTIs as occasional in ADPKD.
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"characterized by progressive outgrowths of fluid-filled cysts from the renal epithelium, which can manifest with hematuria, urinary tract infections, hypertension, and abdominal or flank pain"
Orphanet definition lists urinary tract infections as a clinical feature.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Treatment of cyst infections is difficult, with a high failure rate."
GeneReviews notes that cyst infections are difficult to treat in ADPKD.
Enlarged Kidney FREQUENT HP:0000105 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Enlarged kidney (HP:0000105). HP:0000105 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Orphanet lists as Occasional, but clinical data suggests higher frequency in symptomatic ADPKD cohorts.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000105 | Enlarged kidney | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet lists enlarged kidney as occasional; however clinical imaging studies suggest higher frequency in diagnosed ADPKD patients.
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Patients with MIC 1C to MIC 1E have larger kidneys because of more rapid growth (6%-10% per year)"
JAMA review describes progressive kidney enlargement as a hallmark feature quantified by Mayo Imaging Classification.
Nephrolithiasis OCCASIONAL HP:0000787 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Nephrolithiasis (HP:0000787). HP:0000787 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000791 | Uric acid nephrolithiasis | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet lists uric acid nephrolithiasis as occasional in ADPKD; broader nephrolithiasis term used here to cover both stone types.
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0008672 | Calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet also lists calcium oxalate stones as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Treatment of nephrolithiasis is standard."
GeneReviews mentions nephrolithiasis as a known complication requiring treatment in ADPKD.
Albuminuria FREQUENT HP:0012592 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Albuminuria (HP:0012592). HP:0012592 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0012592 | Albuminuria | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists albuminuria as frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"urine studies for microalbuminuria or proteinuria every one to five years in adults depending on disease stage"
GeneReviews recommends surveillance for albuminuria/proteinuria in ADPKD.
Reduced Sperm Motility OCCASIONAL HP:0012207 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Reduced sperm motility (HP:0012207). HP:0012207 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0012207 | Reduced sperm motility | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists reduced sperm motility as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
GeneReviews documents seminal vesicle cysts which can impair sperm motility.
Pyelonephritis OCCASIONAL HP:0012330 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Pyelonephritis (HP:0012330). HP:0012330 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0012330 | Pyelonephritis | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists pyelonephritis as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:40371605 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Comorbidities include hypertension, flank pain, and bacterial infections."
Proteomic study notes bacterial infections broadly; pyelonephritis specifically supported by ORPHA:730.
Polycystic Kidney Dysplasia VERY_FREQUENT HP:0000113 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Polycystic kidney dysplasia (HP:0000113). HP:0000113 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0000113 | Polycystic kidney dysplasia | Very frequent (99-80%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists polycystic kidney dysplasia as very frequent in ARPKD.
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"characterized by cystic dilatation and ectasia of renal collecting tubules"
Orphanet definition describes the collecting tubule cystic dysplasia that defines ARPKD kidney pathology.
Nervous System 1
Arachnoid Cyst OCCASIONAL HP:0100702 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Arachnoid cyst (HP:0100702). HP:0100702 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0100702 | Arachnoid cyst | Occasional (29-5%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists arachnoid cyst as occasional in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
GeneReviews lists arachnoid membrane cysts as an extrarenal manifestation.
Prenatal and Birth 1
Oligohydramnios FREQUENT HP:0001562 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Oligohydramnios (HP:0001562). HP:0001562 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0001562 | Oligohydramnios | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists oligohydramnios as frequent in ARPKD.
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"Potter-sequence, oligohydramnios, pulmonary hypoplasia, and massively enlarged echogenic kidneys"
Orphanet definition lists oligohydramnios as part of the severe ARPKD presentation.
Respiratory 1
Pulmonary Hypoplasia FREQUENT HP:0002089 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Pulmonary hypoplasia (HP:0002089). HP:0002089 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0002089 | Pulmonary hypoplasia | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists pulmonary hypoplasia as frequent in ARPKD.
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"extreme bilateral enlargement of cystic kidneys in utero associated with hepatic ductal plate abnormalities and pulmonary hypoplasia"
Review confirms pulmonary hypoplasia as a key feature of severe ARPKD.
Constitutional 1
Flank Pain FREQUENT HP:0030157 Human Phenotype Ontology (HP) Relation: this clinical feature is this phenotype This clinical feature is Flank pain (HP:0030157). HP:0030157 is a phenotype from the Human Phenotype Ontology.
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"HP:0030157 | Flank pain | Frequent (79-30%)"
Orphanet phenotype table lists flank pain as frequent in ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Kidney manifestations include early-onset hypertension, kidney pain, and kidney insufficiency."
GeneReviews lists kidney pain as a key manifestation of ADPKD.
PMID:40371605 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Comorbidities include hypertension, flank pain, and bacterial infections."
Proteomic study notes flank pain as a common comorbidity in ADPKD patients.
🧬

Genetic Associations

10
PKD1 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: PKD1 hgnc:9008 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is PKD1 (hgnc:9008). hgnc:9008 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
JAMA review quantifies PKD1 as the predominant cause of ADPKD.
PKD2 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: PKD2 hgnc:9009 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is PKD2 (hgnc:9009). hgnc:9009 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
JAMA review documents PKD2 as a minority but established cause of ADPKD.
PKHD1 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: PKHD1 hgnc:9016 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is PKHD1 (hgnc:9016). hgnc:9016 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:41467628 SUPPORT
"Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is a rare disorder mainly caused by mutations in the polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1 (PKHD1) gene."
Clin Nephrol study states PKHD1 mutations as the primary cause of ARPKD.
DZIP1L Mutations (Causative)
Gene: DZIP1L hgnc:26551 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is DZIP1L (hgnc:26551). hgnc:26551 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (2 references)
CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"DZIP1L | HGNC:26551 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
ClinGen grades the DZIP1L relationship with the recessive form Definitive.
PMID:28530676 SUPPORT In Vitro
"DZIP1L localizes to centrioles and to the distal ends of basal bodies, and interacts with septin2, a protein implicated in maintenance of the periciliary diffusion barrier at the ciliary transition zone."
Localizes the DZIP1L product to the transition zone and names the septin2 interaction behind the diffusion-barrier defect.
GANAB Mutations (Causative)
Gene: GANAB hgnc:4138 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is GANAB (hgnc:4138). hgnc:4138 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"GANAB | glucosidase II alpha subunit | hgnc:4138 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) in"
Orphanet gene table lists GANAB as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews lists GANAB among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
DNAJB11 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: DNAJB11 hgnc:14889 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is DNAJB11 (hgnc:14889). hgnc:14889 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"DNAJB11 | DnaJ heat shock protein family (Hsp40) member B11 | hgnc:14889 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
Orphanet gene table lists DNAJB11 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews lists DNAJB11 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
ALG5 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: ALG5 hgnc:20266 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is ALG5 (hgnc:20266). hgnc:20266 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"ALG5 | ALG5 dolichyl-phosphate beta-glucosyltransferase | hgnc:20266 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) in"
Orphanet gene table lists ALG5 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews lists ALG5 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
ALG9 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: ALG9 hgnc:15672 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is ALG9 (hgnc:15672). hgnc:15672 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (3 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"ALG9 | ALG9 alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase | hgnc:15672 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
Orphanet gene table lists ALG9 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews lists ALG9 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
CGGV:assertion_38d817af-0a28-4453-a00f-ffccadbd9936-2023-09-11T160000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"ALG9 | HGNC:15672 | ALG9-associated autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0700000 | AD | Definitive"
ClinGen grades ALG9 Definitive, against its own dedicated MONDO class MONDO:0700000, which is asserted as a child of MONDO:0004691.
IFT140 Mutations (Causative)
Gene: IFT140 hgnc:29077 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is IFT140 (hgnc:29077). hgnc:29077 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
Show evidence (2 references)
ORPHA:730 SUPPORT Other
"IFT140 | intraflagellar transport 140 | hgnc:29077 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
Orphanet gene table lists IFT140 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
GeneReviews lists IFT140 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
CYS1 (Pathogenic Variants)
Gene: CYS1 hgnc:18525 HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (hgnc) Relation: this disease-associated gene is this gene This disease-associated gene is CYS1 (hgnc:18525). hgnc:18525 is a gene from the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. relationship_type: UNKNOWN
Show evidence (1 reference)
CGGV:assertion_9b3fd5b2-e89e-409a-9802-35cf6ac26913-2024-03-11T160000.000Z SUPPORT Other
"CYS1 | HGNC:18525 | polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0020642 | AR | Limited"
ClinGen classifies the CYS1-polycystic kidney disease gene-disease relationship as limited with autosomal recessive inheritance.
💊

Medical Actions

4
Tolvaptan
Action: PharmacotherapyNCI Thesaurus (NCIT) Relation: this treatment is this clinical intervention This treatment is Pharmacotherapy (NCIT:C15986). NCIT:C15986 is a clinical intervention from the NCI Thesaurus. NCIT:C15986
Agent: tolvaptan CHEBI:32246 Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (CHEBI) Relation: this treatment uses this therapeutic agent This treatment uses tolvaptan (CHEBI:32246). CHEBI:32246 is a therapeutic agent from Chemical Entities of Biological Interest.
Vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist that slows cyst growth and kidney enlargement in ADPKD. First disease-modifying therapy approved for ADPKD. Requires hepatic monitoring due to risk of elevated liver enzymes.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT
"Tolvaptan resulted in a slower decline than placebo in the estimated GFR over a 1-year period in patients with later-stage ADPKD."
REPRISE trial demonstrated tolvaptan efficacy in slowing GFR decline in PKD patients.
PMID:39848746 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"therapies to delay progression of kidney disease"
KDIGO 2025 guideline covers tolvaptan among therapies to delay kidney disease progression in ADPKD.
Blood Pressure Control
Action: PharmacotherapyNCI Thesaurus (NCIT) Relation: this treatment is this clinical intervention This treatment is Pharmacotherapy (NCIT:C15986). NCIT:C15986 is a clinical intervention from the NCI Thesaurus. NCIT:C15986
Aggressive hypertension management with ACE inhibitors or ARBs to slow disease progression and reduce cardiovascular risk.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT
"First-line treatment includes blood pressure control, dietary and weight management, and adequate hydration."
JAMA review confirms blood pressure control as first-line treatment for ADPKD.
PMID:39848746 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"kidney manifestations; chronic kidney disease (CKD) management and progression, kidney failure, and kidney replacement therapy; therapies to delay progression of kidney disease"
KDIGO 2025 guideline covers CKD management including blood pressure control as part of comprehensive ADPKD care.
Renal Dialysis
Action: DialysisNCI Thesaurus (NCIT) Relation: this treatment is this clinical intervention This treatment is Dialysis (NCIT:C15221). NCIT:C15221 is a clinical intervention from the NCI Thesaurus. NCIT:C15221
Dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) for end-stage renal disease. PKD is one of the leading causes of kidney failure requiring dialysis.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT
"Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age."
JAMA review confirms high rate of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis/transplant) in ADPKD.
Kidney Transplantation
Action: organ transplantationNCI Thesaurus (NCIT) Relation: this treatment is this clinical intervention This treatment is organ transplantation (NCIT:C15289). NCIT:C15289 is a clinical intervention from the NCI Thesaurus. Ontology label: Organ Transplantation NCIT:C15289
Platform: Surgery
Kidney transplantation is the preferred treatment for end-stage renal disease in PKD. Native nephrectomy may be required if kidneys are too large.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT
"Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age."
JAMA review confirms high rate of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis/transplant) in ADPKD.
🌍

Environmental Factors

1
Caffeine Consumption
caffeine exposure ECTO:9000205 Environmental Conditions, Treatments and Exposures Ontology (ECTO) Relation: this environmental factor is this exposure This environmental factor is caffeine exposure, annotated with exposure to caffeine (ECTO:9000205). ECTO:9000205 is an exposure from the Environmental Conditions, Treatments and Exposures Ontology.
May accelerate cyst growth through increased cAMP levels; patients often advised to limit intake
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:20301424 SUPPORT
"Agents/circumstances to avoid: Long-term administration of nephrotoxic agents, high levels of caffeine, high-salt diet, smoking, and obesity"
GeneReviews lists high caffeine intake as an avoidable factor in ADPKD management.
Mechanism Target:
EXACERBATES Vasopressin/cAMP-Driven Cyst Expansion — Caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase, so it raises cAMP accumulation in cyst epithelium and amplifies the vasopressin signal that drives cyst expansion.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:12397042 SUPPORT DIRECT In Vitro
"PDE inhibition by caffeine increases the accumulation of cAMP, and through this mechanism activates the ERK pathway to cellular proliferation and increases transepithelial fluid secretion in ADPKD cystic epithelium"
Mural epithelial cells cultured from ADPKD cysts, at clinically relevant caffeine concentrations of 10-50 micromolar. The same abstract identifies proliferation and chloride-dependent fluid accumulation as the mechanisms underlying cyst expansion, so this quote reaches the node rather than stopping at cAMP. Caffeine's potentiation was measured against desmopressin, the vasopressin analogue, which is the node's own signal.
🔬

Biochemical Markers

3
Total Kidney Volume (height-adjusted) (Increased)
Context: Height-adjusted total kidney volume (htTKV) measured by MRI/CT is an imaging biomarker of cumulative cyst burden and progressive kidney enlargement in ADPKD.
Pathograph Readouts
Readout Of Epithelial Proliferation and Kidney Enlargement Positive Prognostic
Height-adjusted total kidney volume is an imaging readout of cumulative cyst burden and progressive kidney enlargement; larger and faster-growing TKV predicts steeper eGFR decline and earlier end-stage renal disease, supporting TKV as a prognostic enrichment biomarker for ADPKD trial patient selection, not a validated treatment-efficacy surrogate.
Total kidney volume ˟
Accelerated Reasonably Likely Surrogate Endpoint
Patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease with or without associated polycystic liver disease
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:24904092 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"The frequency of ESRD at 10 years increased from subclass 1A (2.4%) to 1E (66.9%) in the Mayo cohort and from 1C (2.2%) to 1E (22.3%) in the younger CRISP cohort."
Irazabal/CRISP imaging classification stratifies ADPKD patients by eGFR-decline rate and 10-year ESRD risk using height-adjusted TKV, qualifying TKV as a prognostic enrichment biomarker.
Elevated Creatinine (Elevated)
Context: Marker of declining renal function in advanced disease
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT
"The change from baseline in the estimated GFR was -2.34 ml per minute per 1.73 m2"
Progressive GFR decline reflects rising creatinine as renal function deteriorates.
Decreased GFR (Decreased)
Context: Progressive decline reflecting nephron loss
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:29105594 SUPPORT
"as compared with -3.61 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 (95% CI, -4.08 to -3.14) in the placebo group"
Trial quantifies ongoing GFR loss in ADPKD absent disease-modifying therapy.
📈

Progression

2
Onset
Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD) Age: Adulthood (27-42 years at diagnosis)
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years"
JAMA review provides typical age at diagnosis for ADPKD.
Onset
Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD) Age: Neonatal to childhood
Show evidence (1 reference)
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"Clinical presentation, whilst typically in utero or at birth, is variable"
Orphanet definition states typical prenatal or neonatal onset for ARPKD.
📊

Prevalence

2
United States ADPKD populations
Point Prevalence 93.0 per 100,000 1–9 per 10,000
The clinically recognized prevalence of polycystic kidney disease is driven predominantly by ADPKD, the common adult-onset subtype.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"ADPKD accounts for 5% to 10% of kidney failure in the US and Europe, and its prevalence in the US is 9.3 per 10 000 individuals."
This recent review gives a contemporary clinically recognized prevalence estimate for ADPKD, which constitutes most PKD cases.
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common form of polycystic kidney disease with an incidence of 1 in 800 live births."
This review-level epidemiology supports the high birth incidence of ADPKD within the broader PKD category.
Global ARPKD live births
Birth Prevalence 5.0 per 100,000 1–9 per 100,000 (births)
ARPKD is much rarer than ADPKD and mainly accounts for the infantile and childhood end of the PKD spectrum.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:24162855 SUPPORT Human Clinical
"Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is the recessive form of PKD that has an incidence of 1 in 20 000 and is associated with perinatal and early infantile death."
This review directly states the incidence for the recessive PKD subtype.
ORPHA:731 SUPPORT Other
"1-9 / 100 000 | Germany | Prevalence at birth | EXPERT,PMID:9511976"
Orphanet epidemiology table provides prevalence at birth data for ARPKD from German registry.
🔀

Differential Diagnoses

3

Conditions with similar clinical presentations that must be differentiated from Polycystic Kidney Disease:

Acquired Cystic Kidney Disease (ACKD) Not Yet Curated MONDO:0002473
Overlapping Features Cystic change that develops in chronically dialyzed kidneys, usually in the setting of long-standing kidney failure. Kidneys are often small or normal size rather than massively enlarged as in ADPKD.
Distinguishing Features
  • Occurs after years of dialysis or advanced CKD without family history
  • Kidneys remain small/normal sized rather than enlarged
  • Lacks extensive hepatic cysts common in ADPKD
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT
"Patients with MIC 1C to MIC 1E have larger kidneys because of more rapid growth (6%-10% per year)"
Rapid kidney enlargement in ADPKD contrasts with small kidneys seen in ACKD.
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) MONDO:0001734
Overlapping Features Genetic disorder with renal cysts and angiomyolipomas that can mimic ADPKD but accompanied by dermatologic and neurologic manifestations.
Distinguishing Features
  • Renal angiomyolipomas and cortical tubers with seizures or developmental issues
  • Cutaneous findings (facial angiofibromas, hypomelanotic macules) absent in ADPKD
  • ADPKD frequently shows extensive hepatic cysts, which are uncommon in TSC
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40126492 SUPPORT
"More than 90% of patients older than 35 years have hepatic cysts"
High hepatic cyst burden supports ADPKD over TSC when liver cysts dominate.
📊

Related Datasets

2
Expression data from renal cysts of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients geo:GSE7869
Microarray profiling comparing ADPKD kidney cyst epithelium with non-cystic kidney tissue to identify dysregulated pathways in cyst growth.
human MICROARRAY
kidney epithelium UBERON:0002113 Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON) Relation: this dataset samples this sample type This dataset samples kidney epithelium, annotated with kidney (UBERON:0002113). UBERON:0002113 is a sample type from the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology.
Conditions: ADPKD cyst epithelium non-cystic kidney tissue
PMID:19346236
Public ADPKD microarray dataset frequently used to study cystogenesis-related signaling changes.
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:23524344 SUPPORT
"Microarray data are available at GEO website (accession number: GSE7869)."
Confirms the GEO accession for the ADPKD cyst epithelium microarray dataset.
PMID:19346236 SUPPORT
"To elucidate the molecular pathways that modulate renal cyst growth in ADPKD, we performed global gene profiling on cysts of different size (<1 ml, n = 5; 10-20 ml, n = 5; >50 ml, n = 3) and minimally cystic tissue (MCT, n = 5) from five PKD1 human polycystic kidneys using Affymetrix HG-U133..."
Describes the PKD1 cyst epithelium microarray experiment underlying GSE7869.
GTEx v8 kidney cortex bulk RNA-seq gtex:GTEx_v8_Kidney_Cortex
Bulk RNA-seq from healthy kidney cortex samples providing control transcriptomes for comparison to ADPKD cystic tissue.
human BULK RNA SEQ
kidney cortex UBERON:0001225 Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON) Relation: this dataset samples this sample type This dataset samples kidney cortex, annotated with cortex of kidney (UBERON:0001225). UBERON:0001225 is a sample type from the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology.
PMID:39815096
Healthy kidney reference transcriptomes useful as baseline controls for differential expression analyses in ADPKD studies.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:39815096 SUPPORT
"The data will comprise whole-genome sequencing, extensive bulk, single-cell and spatial gene expression profiles, and chromatin accessibility data across tissues and development."
Establishes dGTEx as a bulk expression resource providing control transcriptomes across tissues including kidney.
🧫

Experimental Models

3
ADPKD kidney organoid cystogenesis model ORGANOID namo:Organoid
Human kidney organoids derived from patient-specific or gene-edited induced pluripotent stem cells model early ADPKD cyst initiation in a genetically relevant renal epithelial context and support preclinical compound testing.
autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease PKD1 heterozygous mutation patient-derived hiPSC gene-edited hiPSC healthy control
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this experimental model uses this cell type This experimental model uses nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
Organism
human NCBITaxon:9606 NCBI Taxonomy (NCBITaxon) Relation: this experimental model is built in this organism This experimental model is built in human, annotated with Homo sapiens (NCBITaxon:9606). NCBITaxon:9606 is an organism from the NCBI Taxonomy.
Tissue
kidney UBERON:0002113 Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON) Relation: this experimental model uses this anatomical location This experimental model uses kidney (UBERON:0002113). UBERON:0002113 is an anatomical location from the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology.
Cell source
Disease-specific or gene-edited human induced pluripotent stem cells differentiated into kidney organoids
Culture
Three-dimensional kidney organoid culture with differentiated renal epithelial cyst readouts
Publication
PMID:32819584
Findings
ADPKD kidney organoids reproduce renal cyst formation from genetically relevant human renal epithelium
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:32819584 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Importantly, we found that kidney organoids differentiated from gene-edited heterozygous PKD1-mutant as well as ADPKD patient-derived hiPSCs can reproduce renal cysts."
Shows that both engineered and patient-derived human iPSC kidney organoids recapitulate the core cystic phenotype of ADPKD.
Tubular epithelial organoids also capture early PKD1-linked morphogenesis and ciliary defects relevant to cyst initiation
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:40140667 SUPPORT In Vitro
"PKD1 null (PKD1-/-) organoids spontaneously develop dilated tubules, recapitulating early ADPKD cystogenesis. Furthermore, PKD1-/- tubules present primary cilia defects when dilated."
Supports a restrained mechanistic link between human organoid phenotypes and the ciliary and tubular morphogenesis abnormalities represented in PKD pathophysiology.
Most informative for early epithelial and ciliary mechanisms of cyst initiation rather than late interstitial remodeling.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:32819584 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Here, we report a novel ADPKD model using kidney organoids derived from disease-specific human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)."
Supports this as a first-class human organoid model for ADPKD.
Adult ADPKD kidney tubuloid model ORGANOID namo:Organoid
Adult kidney tubuloids expanded from CD24-positive tubular epithelial cells provide a long-term human epithelial model of ADPKD that preserves adult tubular identity and supports pharmacologic testing.
autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease PKD1 knockout PKD2 knockout control kidney tissue
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this experimental model uses this cell type This experimental model uses nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
Organism
human NCBITaxon:9606 NCBI Taxonomy (NCBITaxon) Relation: this experimental model is built in this organism This experimental model is built in human, annotated with Homo sapiens (NCBITaxon:9606). NCBITaxon:9606 is an organism from the NCBI Taxonomy.
Tissue
kidney UBERON:0002113 Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON) Relation: this experimental model uses this anatomical location This experimental model uses kidney (UBERON:0002113). UBERON:0002113 is an anatomical location from the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology.
Cell source
Adult human kidney CD24-positive tubular epithelial cells expanded as tubuloids, with CRISPR-edited PKD1 or PKD2 knockout comparators
Culture
Long-term three-dimensional adult kidney tubuloid culture with single-cell transcriptomic and cyst-size readouts
Publication
PMID:36303074
Findings
Adult kidney tubuloids reconstitute cyst formation and disease-driving transcriptional programs seen in human ADPKD tissue
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:36303074 SUPPORT In Vitro
"We show that kidney tubuloids can be used to model the most common inherited kidney disease, namely autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), reconstituting the phenotypic hallmark of this disease with cyst formation."
Establishes adult kidney tubuloids as a disease-relevant human model that reproduces cyst formation.
PMID:36303074 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Single-cell RNA sequencing of CRISPR-Cas9 gene-edited PKD1- and PKD2-knockout tubuloids and human ADPKD and control tissue shows similarities in upregulation of disease-driving genes."
Links the tubuloid phenotype to transcriptional programs observed in human ADPKD tissue.
This adult epithelial model supports response testing for the clinically used V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:36303074 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Furthermore, in a proof of concept, we demonstrate that tolvaptan, the only approved drug for ADPKD, has a significant effect on cyst size in tubuloids but no effect on a pluripotent stem cell-derived model."
Provides translational relevance for a model aligned to vasopressin-linked cyst expansion biology.
Useful when adult tubular identity or differential tolvaptan response is the focus, rather than early nephrogenic organoid phenotypes.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:36303074 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Long-term-cultured CD24+ cell-derived tubuloids represent a functional human kidney tubule."
Supports the use of adult human tubuloids as a renal epithelial model system for PKD.
ARPKD organoid-on-chip mechanosensing model ORGAN_ON_CHIP namo:OrganOnChip
Perfused human PKHD1-mutant kidney organoids integrated with organ-on-chip culture introduce flow-dependent biophysical cues missing from static culture and expose distal-nephron dilation and mechanosensing programs relevant to ARPKD.
autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease PKHD1 mutation flow culture static organoid control
nephron tubule epithelial cell CL:1000494 Cell Ontology (CL) Relation: this experimental model uses this cell type This experimental model uses nephron tubule epithelial cell (CL:1000494). CL:1000494 is a cell type from the Cell Ontology.
Organism
human NCBITaxon:9606 NCBI Taxonomy (NCBITaxon) Relation: this experimental model is built in this organism This experimental model is built in human, annotated with Homo sapiens (NCBITaxon:9606). NCBITaxon:9606 is an organism from the NCBI Taxonomy.
Tissue
kidney UBERON:0002113 Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology (UBERON) Relation: this experimental model uses this anatomical location This experimental model uses kidney (UBERON:0002113). UBERON:0002113 is an anatomical location from the Uberon multi-species anatomy ontology.
Cell source
Human PKHD1-mutant kidney organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells
Culture
Perfused organoid-on-chip culture comparing flow and static conditions
Publication
PMID:36129975
Findings
Flow-conditioned ARPKD organoid-on-chip cultures reveal distal nephron dilatation not captured by static organoids alone
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:36129975 SUPPORT In Vitro
"PKHD1-mutant organoids-on-a-chip are subjected to flow that induces clinically relevant phenotypes of distal nephron dilatation."
Supports the role of the chip platform in revealing flow-dependent tubular dilation relevant to ARPKD.
PMID:36129975 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Transcriptomics discover 229 signal pathways that are not identified by static models."
Shows that adding biophysical flow changes the mechanistic readout relative to static organoid systems.
The chip model nominates mechanosensing targets and supports experimental suppression of cyst formation
Show evidence (2 references)
PMID:36129975 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Mechanosensing molecules, RAC1 and FOS, are identified as potential therapeutic targets and validated by patient kidney samples."
Grounds the model's mechanistic utility in pathway discovery linked to patient tissue.
PMID:36129975 SUPPORT In Vitro
"On the basis of this insight, we tested two U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved and one investigational new drugs that target RAC1 and FOS in our organoid-on-a-chip model, which suppressed cyst formation."
Demonstrates utility of the ARPKD chip model for experimental therapeutic testing.
Most directly informs flow-dependent tubular dilation and mechanosensing rather than the full systemic hepatorenal phenotype of ARPKD.
Show evidence (1 reference)
PMID:36129975 SUPPORT In Vitro
"Here, we unite organoids with organ-on-a-chip technology to unravel disease pathology and develop therapies for autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
Supports this as a disease-relevant human organoid-on-chip model for ARPKD.
{ }

Source YAML

click to show 
name: Polycystic Kidney Disease
creation_date: '2026-01-09T06:06:08Z'
category: Mendelian
description: >
  Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the
  development of multiple fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys. The autosomal dominant
  form (ADPKD) is one of the most common inherited kidney diseases, affecting
  approximately 1 in 500-1000 people. ADPKD is caused by mutations in PKD1 or PKD2
  genes and typically presents in adulthood with progressive renal enlargement,
  hypertension, and eventual kidney failure. Autosomal recessive PKD (ARPKD) is
  less common and typically presents in infancy or childhood.
disease_term:
  preferred_term: polycystic kidney disease
  term:
    id: MONDO:0020642
    label: polycystic kidney disease
parents:
- Genetic Kidney Disease
- Ciliopathy
has_subtypes:
- name: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  subtype_term:
    preferred_term: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
    term:
      id: MONDO:0004691
      label: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
  description: Most common form, caused by PKD1 or PKD2 mutations, typically presenting in adulthood.
  genes:
  - preferred_term: PKD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9008
      label: PKD1
  - preferred_term: PKD2
    term:
      id: hgnc:9009
      label: PKD2
  - preferred_term: GANAB
    term:
      id: hgnc:4138
      label: GANAB
  - preferred_term: DNAJB11
    term:
      id: hgnc:14889
      label: DNAJB11
  - preferred_term: ALG5
    term:
      id: hgnc:20266
      label: ALG5
  - preferred_term: ALG9
    term:
      id: hgnc:15672
      label: ALG9
  - preferred_term: IFT140
    term:
      id: hgnc:29077
      label: IFT140
  inheritance:
  - name: Autosomal dominant
    inheritance_term:
      preferred_term: Autosomal dominant inheritance
      term:
        id: HP:0000006
        label: Autosomal dominant inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "MONDO:0004691 | Exact"
    explanation: Orphanet cross-reference maps ORPHA:730 exactly to MONDO:0004691.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: >-
      GeneReviews names the seven genes in which a single heterozygous variant
      establishes the molecular diagnosis of the dominant form, which is the set
      bound in this row.
- name: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  subtype_term:
    preferred_term: autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease
    term:
      id: MONDO:0009889
      label: autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease
  description: Less common form caused by PKHD1 mutations, presenting in infancy or childhood with more severe phenotype.
  children:
  - PKD4
  - PKD5
  genes:
  - preferred_term: PKHD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9016
      label: PKHD1
  - preferred_term: DZIP1L
    term:
      id: hgnc:26551
      label: DZIP1L
  inheritance:
  - name: Autosomal recessive
    inheritance_term:
      preferred_term: Autosomal recessive inheritance
      term:
        id: HP:0000007
        label: Autosomal recessive inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "MONDO:0009889 | Exact"
    explanation: Orphanet cross-reference maps ORPHA:731 exactly to MONDO:0009889.
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z
    reference_title: "DZIP1L / autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "DZIP1L | HGNC:26551 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
    explanation: >-
      ClinGen grades the DZIP1L relationship with the recessive form Definitive,
      which is why this row carries a second gene beside PKHD1.
- name: PKD4
  display_name: Polycystic kidney disease 4 (PKHD1)
  subtype_term:
    preferred_term: polycystic kidney disease 4
    term:
      id: MONDO:0033004
      label: polycystic kidney disease 4
  description: >-
    The PKHD1-defined form of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease, and
    the form that accounts for most of it. Biallelic loss of function
    removes fibrocystin, a transmembrane glycoprotein of the primary cilium,
    from collecting-duct epithelium; the hepatic component is a ductal plate
    malformation producing congenital hepatic fibrosis.
  genes:
  - preferred_term: PKHD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9016
      label: PKHD1
  inheritance:
  - name: Autosomal recessive
    inheritance_term:
      preferred_term: Autosomal recessive inheritance
      term:
        id: HP:0000007
        label: Autosomal recessive inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_06fb7576-e842-4e52-9284-0762bb7a05c6-2020-11-11T050000.000Z
    reference_title: "PKHD1 / autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "PKHD1 | HGNC:9016 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
    explanation: >-
      ClinGen grades the PKHD1 relationship with the recessive form Definitive,
      and records loss of function as the mechanism.
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_06fb7576-e842-4e52-9284-0762bb7a05c6-2020-11-11T050000.000Z
    reference_title: "PKHD1 / autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
    explanation: >-
      The ClinGen evidence summary describes the hepatic lesion of this form as a
      ductal plate malformation with congenital hepatic fibrosis.
  - reference: PMID:20301501
    reference_title: Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease – PKHD1.
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    quote_role: REVIEW_SYNTHESIS
    snippet: "The molecular diagnosis of ARPKD-PKHD1 is established in a proband with suggestive findings and biallelic pathogenic variants in PKHD1 identified by molecular genetic testing."
    explanation: >-
      The GeneReviews chapter for this form states the biallelic requirement,
      which is the molecular definition of the row.
  - reference: PMID:28530676
    reference_title: "Mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes a ciliary-transition-zone protein, cause autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    quote_role: BACKGROUND
    snippet: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), usually considered to be a genetically homogeneous disease caused by mutations in PKHD1, has been associated with ciliary dysfunction."
    explanation: >-
      Frames PKHD1 as the gene ARPKD was taken to be homogeneous for, which is
      the basis for calling this the form that accounts for most of ARPKD. Quoted
      from the introduction of the report that added the second gene.
  review_notes: >-
    MONDO's text definition of MONDO:0033004 reads "A autosomal dominant
    polycystic kidney disease that has material basis in mutation in the PKD4
    gene". The class is nonetheless asserted as a child of MONDO:0009889
    autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease, and its OWL causal-gene axiom
    is hgnc:9016 PKHD1. Its cross-references are OMIM:263200 and
    MEDGEN:1621793, and MedGen defines that concept with the GeneReviews text for
    autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease - PKHD1. HGNC records PKD4 as an
    alias of PKD2 and returns no gene for it as an approved symbol. The binding here follows the axiom, the asserted parent and the OMIM
    cross-reference rather than the definition text.
- name: PKD5
  display_name: Polycystic kidney disease 5 (DZIP1L)
  subtype_term:
    preferred_term: polycystic kidney disease 5
    term:
      id: MONDO:0033281
      label: polycystic kidney disease 5
  description: >-
    The DZIP1L-defined form of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease.
    DZIP1L localizes to centrioles and to the distal ends of basal bodies and
    interacts with septin2, which maintains the periciliary diffusion barrier at
    the ciliary transition zone. So this form reaches the same ciliary endpoint as
    the PKHD1 form by a different route: translocation of polycystin-1 and
    polycystin-2 into the ciliary membrane is compromised. Reported patients had
    polycystic, enlarged kidneys with reduced cortico-medullary differentiation,
    arterial hypertension and end-stage renal disease, and there was limited
    evidence for a liver phenotype in the reported cohort.
  genes:
  - preferred_term: DZIP1L
    term:
      id: hgnc:26551
      label: DZIP1L
  inheritance:
  - name: Autosomal recessive
    inheritance_term:
      preferred_term: Autosomal recessive inheritance
      term:
        id: HP:0000007
        label: Autosomal recessive inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:28530676
    reference_title: "Mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes a ciliary-transition-zone protein, cause autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Here, we describe mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes DAZ interacting protein 1-like, in patients with ARPKD."
    explanation: >-
      The report that established a second gene for the recessive form, in
      patients ascertained with ARPKD.
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z
    reference_title: "DZIP1L / autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "Patients with homozygous DZIP1L pathogenic variants were reported to exhibit polycystic kidneys, enlarged kidneys, reduced cortico-medullary differentiation, arterial hypertension and end-stage renal disease. Of note, there was limited evidence for a liver phenotype in this cohort of ARPKD patients."
    explanation: >-
      ClinGen's evidence summary is the source for the renal presentation and for
      the weaker hepatic involvement stated in this row's description.
  review_notes: >-
    ClinGen curated DZIP1L against MONDO:0009889 rather than against
    MONDO:0033281, noting no difference in molecular mechanism or inheritance
    pattern from the PKHD1 form, which is why this row is declared a child of the
    ARPKD row rather than a sibling of it.
inheritance:
- name: Autosomal dominant inheritance
  inheritance_term:
    preferred_term: Autosomal dominant inheritance
    term:
      id: HP:0000006
      label: Autosomal dominant inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    explanation: Orphanet classifies ADPKD as autosomal dominant.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by progressive development of kidney cysts and is the most common inherited kidney disorder worldwide."
    explanation: JAMA review confirms autosomal dominant inheritance for the most common PKD form.
- name: Autosomal recessive inheritance
  inheritance_term:
    preferred_term: Autosomal recessive inheritance
    term:
      id: HP:0000007
      label: Autosomal recessive inheritance
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "Autosomal recessive"
    explanation: Orphanet records autosomal recessive inheritance for ARPKD.
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is the recessive form of PKD that has an incidence of 1 in 20 000"
    explanation: Review confirms autosomal recessive inheritance for the ARPKD subtype.
progression:
- phase: Onset
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  age_range: Adulthood (27-42 years at diagnosis)
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years"
    explanation: JAMA review provides typical age at diagnosis for ADPKD.
- phase: Onset
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  age_range: Neonatal to childhood
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "Clinical presentation, whilst typically in utero or at birth, is variable"
    explanation: Orphanet definition states typical prenatal or neonatal onset for ARPKD.
prevalence:
- population: United States ADPKD populations
  measure_type: POINT_PREVALENCE
  prevalence_class: BAND_1_5_PER_10000
  rate_per_100000: 93.0
  percentage: 9.3 per 10,000
  notes: >-
    The clinically recognized prevalence of polycystic kidney disease is driven
    predominantly by ADPKD, the common adult-onset subtype.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "ADPKD accounts for 5% to 10% of kidney failure in the US and Europe, and its prevalence in the US is 9.3 per 10 000 individuals."
    explanation: This recent review gives a contemporary clinically recognized prevalence estimate for ADPKD, which constitutes most PKD cases.
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is the most common form of polycystic kidney disease with an incidence of 1 in 800 live births."
    explanation: This review-level epidemiology supports the high birth incidence of ADPKD within the broader PKD category.
- population: Global ARPKD live births
  measure_type: BIRTH_PREVALENCE
  prevalence_class: BAND_1_9_PER_100000
  rate_per_100000: 5.0
  percentage: 1 in 20,000 live births
  notes: >-
    ARPKD is much rarer than ADPKD and mainly accounts for the infantile and
    childhood end of the PKD spectrum.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is the recessive form of PKD that has an incidence of 1 in 20 000 and is associated with perinatal and early infantile death."
    explanation: This review directly states the incidence for the recessive PKD subtype.
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "1-9 / 100 000 | Germany | Prevalence at birth | EXPERT,PMID:9511976"
    explanation: Orphanet epidemiology table provides prevalence at birth data for ARPKD from German registry.
pathophysiology:
- name: Vasopressin/cAMP-Driven Cyst Expansion
  conforms_to: "renal_cystogenesis#cAMP and Vasopressin-V2R Signaling Activation"
  description: >
    Elevated vasopressin signaling via V2 receptors increases cAMP in tubular
    epithelial cells, driving chloride and fluid secretion into cysts and promoting
    cyst wall growth. Blocking V2 signaling slows total kidney volume expansion.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume"
    explanation: Tolvaptan’s effect on kidney volume underscores vasopressin/cAMP signaling as a key driver of cyst expansion.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: cAMP/PKA signal transduction
    term:
      id: GO:0141156
      label: cAMP/PKA signal transduction
  downstream:
  - target: Multiple Renal Cysts
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
  - target: Enlarged Kidney
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
- name: Epithelial Proliferation and Kidney Enlargement
  conforms_to: "renal_cystogenesis#Cyst-Lining Epithelial Proliferation and Transepithelial Fluid Secretion"
  description: >
    Reduced polycystin-mediated restraint on epithelial proliferation leads to
    progressive cyst wall growth and parenchymal compression, increasing total
    kidney volume and reducing renal function.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "slowed the growth in total kidney volume and the decline in the estimated glomerular filtration rate"
    explanation: Dampening kidney volume growth parallels slower GFR loss, linking cyst epithelial proliferation to functional decline.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: regulation of cell proliferation
    term:
      id: GO:0042127
      label: regulation of cell population proliferation
  downstream:
  - target: Chronic Kidney Disease
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Hypertension
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Flank Pain
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Hematuria
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Nephrolithiasis
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Albuminuria
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Pyelonephritis
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Pulmonary Hypoplasia
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Oligohydramnios
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
- name: Defective Polycystin-1 Maturation in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
  biological_scale: MOLECULAR
  description: >-
    Polycystin-1 is a membrane protein, and its production depends on the
    glycan-processing and chaperone machinery of the endoplasmic reticulum. The
    minor dominant cystic-kidney genes act here rather than on the polycystin
    complex itself: GANAB encodes the alpha subunit of glucosidase II, ALG5 adds
    glucose and ALG9 adds mannose to the assembling N-glycan precursor, and
    DNAJB11 is a co-factor of the ER chaperone BiP. Loss of any of them leaves
    less mature polycystin-1 to reach the cell surface and the cilium. The
    presentation recorded for this arm is kidneys that stay normal in size, few or
    no liver cysts, and late end-stage kidney disease, reached from age 62 onwards
    in the ALG5 series.
  genes:
  - preferred_term: GANAB
    term:
      id: hgnc:4138
      label: GANAB
  - preferred_term: DNAJB11
    term:
      id: hgnc:14889
      label: DNAJB11
  - preferred_term: ALG5
    term:
      id: hgnc:20266
      label: ALG5
  - preferred_term: ALG9
    term:
      id: hgnc:15672
      label: ALG9
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: kidney epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:0002518
      label: kidney epithelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: polycystin-1 maturation
    modifier: DECREASED
    term:
      id: GO:0051604
      label: protein maturation
  - preferred_term: N-glycan precursor assembly in the ER lumen
    modifier: DECREASED
    term:
      id: GO:0006487
      label: protein N-linked glycosylation
  - preferred_term: BiP-dependent folding of membrane proteins
    modifier: DECREASED
    term:
      id: GO:0034975
      label: protein folding in endoplasmic reticulum
  cellular_components:
  - preferred_term: endoplasmic reticulum lumen
    term:
      id: GO:0005788
      label: endoplasmic reticulum lumen
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:31395617
    reference_title: "ALG9 Mutation Carriers Develop Kidney and Liver Cysts."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    quote_role: BACKGROUND
    snippet: "Dominantly inherited polycystic kidney and liver diseases on the ADPKD spectrum are also caused by mutations in at least six other genes required for protein biogenesis in the endoplasmic reticulum, the loss of which results in defective production of the PKD1 gene product, the membrane protein polycystin-1 (PC1)."
    explanation: >-
      States the node's thesis: a second class of dominant cystic-kidney genes
      acts on ER protein biogenesis and converges on reduced polycystin-1.
  - reference: PMID:27259053
    reference_title: "Mutations in GANAB, Encoding the Glucosidase IIα Subunit, Cause Autosomal-Dominant Polycystic Kidney and Liver Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Analysis of GANAB-null cells showed an absolute requirement of GIIα for maturation and surface and ciliary localization of the ADPKD proteins (PC1 and PC2), and reduced mature PC1 was seen in GANAB(+/-) cells."
    explanation: >-
      Null and heterozygous cell lines place the GANAB requirement at
      polycystin maturation and at surface and ciliary delivery.
  - reference: PMID:29706351
    reference_title: "Monoallelic Mutations to DNAJB11 Cause Atypical Autosomal-Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Characterization of DNAJB11-null cells and kidney samples from affected individuals revealed a pathogenesis associated with maturation and trafficking defects involving the ADPKD protein, PC1, and ADTKD proteins, such as UMOD."
    explanation: >-
      Null cells and patient kidney tissue locate the DNAJB11 defect at PC1
      maturation and trafficking.
  - reference: PMID:35896117
    reference_title: "Monoallelic pathogenic ALG5 variants cause atypical polycystic kidney disease and interstitial fibrosis."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "We also show that ALG5 is required for PC1 maturation and membrane and ciliary localization and that heterozygous loss of ALG5 affects PC1 maturation."
    explanation: >-
      Shows the requirement holds at a single-allele dose, which is what makes
      the dominant inheritance of this arm coherent.
  - reference: PMID:31395617
    reference_title: "ALG9 Mutation Carriers Develop Kidney and Liver Cysts."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "In vitro assays showed that inactivation of Alg9 results in impaired maturation and defective glycosylation of PC1."
    explanation: >-
      Ties the ALG9 arm to the same readout, and to the glycosylation step the
      N-linked glycosylation binding on this node asserts.
  - reference: PMID:35896117
    reference_title: "Monoallelic pathogenic ALG5 variants cause atypical polycystic kidney disease and interstitial fibrosis."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Clinical presentation was consistent in the 23 affected members, with non-enlarged cystic kidneys and few or no liver cysts; 8 subjects reached end-stage kidney disease from 62 to 91 years of age."
    explanation: >-
      Source for the milder, later presentation this node's description
      attributes to the ER arm.
  downstream:
  - target: Ciliary Dysfunction
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
    description: >-
      Failure of polycystin-1 maturation in the ER is upstream of the ciliary
      defect: surface and ciliary localization of polycystin-1 depends on ER
      processing, and restoring that processing restores the localization.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:27259053
      reference_title: "Mutations in GANAB, Encoding the Glucosidase IIα Subunit, Cause Autosomal-Dominant Polycystic Kidney and Liver Disease."
      supports: SUPPORT
      directness: DIRECT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "PC1 surface localization in GANAB(-/-) cells was rescued by wild-type, but not mutant, GIIα."
      explanation: >-
        Rescue by wild-type but not mutant glucosidase II establishes the
        direction of the link from ER processing to polycystin delivery.
- name: Ciliary Dysfunction
  conforms_to: "ciliopathy_dysfunction#Renal Tubular Cystic and Fibrotic Disease"
  description: >
    Primary cilia act as mechanosensors in renal tubular epithelial cells.
    Polycystin dysfunction impairs ciliary signaling, disrupting normal tubular
    architecture and promoting cyst formation through increased cAMP signaling.
    Cilium-dependent planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling further maintains
    tubular geometry via oriented cell division; its disruption drives tubular
    dilatation and cystogenesis, placing PKD within the renal cystic-fibrotic
    arm of the ciliopathies.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "PC-1 is a membrane receptor that localizes to the primary cilium in renal epithelial cells"
    explanation: Review establishes that polycystin-1 localizes to the primary cilium in renal epithelial cells, directly linking ciliary dysfunction to ADPKD pathogenesis.
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "The localization of the PC-1/PC-2 complex in the primary cilium is proposed to be crucial for its function as a mechanosensory antenna of fluid flow in the kidney."
    explanation: Review describes the polycystin complex as a ciliary mechanosensor, supporting the ciliary dysfunction mechanism in PKD.
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "disruption of OCD resulted in dilated tubules and/or cystic kidneys in a number of animal models"
    explanation: Loss of cilium/PCP-dependent oriented cell division causes tubular dilatation and cystic kidneys in animal models, mechanistically linking ciliary dysfunction to cystogenesis and supporting conformance to the ciliopathy renal cystic-fibrotic module node.
  - reference: PMID:37905714
    reference_title: "The molecular structure and function of fibrocystin, the key gene product implicated in autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    quote_role: REVIEW_SYNTHESIS
    snippet: "The disease is almost always caused by variations in the polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1 gene, which encodes fibrocystin (FC), a very large, single-pass transmembrane glycoprotein found in primary cilia, urine and urinary exosomes."
    explanation: >-
      Places the PKHD1 product at the primary cilium, which is what puts the
      recessive form on this node alongside the polycystins.
  - reference: PMID:28530676
    reference_title: "Mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes a ciliary-transition-zone protein, cause autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "In agreement with a defect in the diffusion barrier, we found that the ciliary-membrane translocation of the PKD proteins polycystin-1 and polycystin-2 is compromised in DZIP1L-mutant cells."
    explanation: >-
      DZIP1L-mutant cells fail to deliver polycystin-1 and polycystin-2 to the
      ciliary membrane, which is this node's defect reached from the transition
      zone.
  - reference: PMID:40972705
    reference_title: "Monoallelic IFT140 Variants Causing Childhood-Onset Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    quote_role: BACKGROUND
    snippet: "IFT140 is a component of the intraflagellar transport-complex A involved in retrograde ciliary trafficking of proteins into primary cilia."
    explanation: >-
      Identifies IFT140 as ciliary transport machinery, so its cystic phenotype
      belongs on this node rather than on the ER-maturation node.
  - reference: PMID:41720266
    reference_title: Disruption of the human cystin-1 myristoyl-electrostatic switch causes polycystic
      kidney disease that phenocopies autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease.
    supports: SUPPORT
    directness: DIRECT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    quote_role: BACKGROUND
    snippet: "Cys1 encodes cystin, a myristoylated protein that traffics to the primary cilium and nucleus."
    explanation: >-
      Identifies the CYS1 product as a ciliary protein. The gene-disease
      relationship itself is graded Limited by ClinGen, which the genetic section
      records.
  genes:
  - preferred_term: PKD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9008
      label: PKD1
  - preferred_term: PKD2
    term:
      id: hgnc:9009
      label: PKD2
  - preferred_term: PKHD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9016
      label: PKHD1
  - preferred_term: DZIP1L
    term:
      id: hgnc:26551
      label: DZIP1L
  - preferred_term: IFT140
    term:
      id: hgnc:29077
      label: IFT140
  - preferred_term: CYS1
    term:
      id: hgnc:18525
      label: CYS1
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: cilium organization
    term:
      id: GO:0044782
      label: cilium organization
  - preferred_term: cAMP/PKA signal transduction
    term:
      id: GO:0141156
      label: cAMP/PKA signal transduction
  downstream:
  - target: Hepatic Cysts
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Intracranial Aneurysm
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Mitral Valve Prolapse
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Aortic Root Aneurysm
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Pancreatic Cysts
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Reduced Sperm Motility
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Arachnoid Cyst
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Polycystic Kidney Dysplasia
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
- name: Fibrosis and Inflammation
  description: >
    Progressive cyst growth triggers interstitial inflammation and fibrosis.
    Activated myofibroblasts deposit extracellular matrix, contributing to
    nephron loss and declining kidney function.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:34155062
    reference_title: "TWEAK Signaling Pathway Blockade Slows Cyst Growth and Disease Progression in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: MODEL_ORGANISM
    snippet: "Macrophage recruitment and interstitial inflammation promote cyst growth."
    explanation: Study directly demonstrates that macrophage-driven interstitial inflammation promotes cyst growth in ADPKD.
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: macrophage
    term:
      id: CL:0000235
      label: macrophage
  biological_processes:
  - preferred_term: inflammatory response
    term:
      id: GO:0006954
      label: inflammatory response
  downstream:
  - target: Chronic Kidney Disease
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Hepatic Fibrosis
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
  - target: Portal Hypertension
    causal_link_type: INDIRECT_UNKNOWN_INTERMEDIATES
  - target: Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
phenotypes:
- name: Multiple Renal Cysts
  category: Renal
  frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
  description: Multiple fluid-filled cysts in both kidneys, progressively enlarging over time.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Multiple renal cysts
    term:
      id: HP:0005562
      label: Multiple renal cysts
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000107 | Renal cyst | Very frequent (99-80%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists renal cysts as very frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is characterized by progressive development of kidney cysts"
    explanation: JAMA review describes ADPKD as a progressive cystic kidney disease.
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume"
    explanation: REPRISE trial confirms PKD as a cystic kidney disease defined by progressive kidney volume increase.
- name: Hypertension
  category: Cardiovascular
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: High blood pressure, affecting 70-80% of ADPKD patients, often preceding decline in renal function.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Hypertension
    term:
      id: HP:0000822
      label: Hypertension
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000822 | Hypertension | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists hypertension as frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Hypertension affects 70% to 80% of patients with ADPKD"
    explanation: JAMA review confirms very high prevalence of hypertension in ADPKD patients.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Kidney manifestations include early-onset hypertension, kidney pain, and kidney insufficiency."
    explanation: GeneReviews lists early-onset hypertension as a key kidney manifestation of ADPKD.
- name: Chronic Kidney Disease
  category: Renal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: Progressive decline in kidney function, with approximately 50% reaching end-stage renal disease by age 62.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Chronic kidney disease
    term:
      id: HP:0012622
      label: Chronic kidney disease
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0012622 | Chronic kidney disease | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists chronic kidney disease as frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age"
    explanation: High rate of kidney replacement therapy highlights progression to advanced CKD in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The change from baseline in the estimated GFR was -2.34 ml per minute per 1.73 m2"
    explanation: Trial demonstrates progressive GFR decline in PKD patients.
- name: Hepatic Cysts
  category: Hepatic
  frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
  description: Liver cysts are the most common extrarenal manifestation, present in >90% of patients over 35, more prevalent in women.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Hepatic cysts
    term:
      id: HP:0001407
      label: Hepatic cysts
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001407 | Hepatic cysts | Very frequent (99-80%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists hepatic cysts as very frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "More than 90% of patients older than 35 years have hepatic cysts, which may cause abdominal discomfort and occasionally require medical or surgical intervention"
    explanation: JAMA review confirms hepatic cysts as a very common manifestation in ADPKD with symptomatic burden.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "The prevalence of liver cysts increases with age and occasionally results in clinically significant severe polycystic liver disease (PLD), most often in females."
    explanation: GeneReviews confirms age-related increase and female predominance of hepatic cysts.
- name: Intracranial Aneurysm
  category: Vascular
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Cerebral berry aneurysms occur in 9-14% of ADPKD patients, with fivefold increased risk compared to general population.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Cerebral berry aneurysm
    term:
      id: HP:0007029
      label: Cerebral berry aneurysm
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0004944 | Dilatation of the cerebral artery | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists cerebral artery dilatation as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "approximately 9% to 14% develop intracranial aneurysms, which have a rupture rate of 0.57 per 1000 patient-years"
    explanation: JAMA review quantifies intracranial aneurysm prevalence and rupture rate in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "the prevalence of intracranial aneurysms is fivefold higher than in the general population and further increased in those with a positive family history of aneurysms or subarachnoid hemorrhage"
    explanation: GeneReviews documents increased aneurysm risk and family history effect.
- name: Flank Pain
  category: Renal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: Chronic or acute pain due to cyst hemorrhage, infection, or mass effect.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Flank pain
    term:
      id: HP:0030157
      label: Flank pain
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0030157 | Flank pain | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists flank pain as frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Kidney manifestations include early-onset hypertension, kidney pain, and kidney insufficiency."
    explanation: GeneReviews lists kidney pain as a key manifestation of ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40371605
    reference_title: "Changes in Protein Expression of Renal Drug Transporters and Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease Patients."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Comorbidities include hypertension, flank pain, and bacterial infections."
    explanation: Proteomic study notes flank pain as a common comorbidity in ADPKD patients.
- name: Hematuria
  category: Renal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: Gross or microscopic hematuria from cyst hemorrhage, occurring in 50-60% of ADPKD patients.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Hematuria
    term:
      id: HP:0000790
      label: Hematuria
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000790 | Hematuria | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists hematuria as frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "characterized by progressive outgrowths of fluid-filled cysts from the renal epithelium, which can manifest with hematuria, urinary tract infections, hypertension, and abdominal or flank pain"
    explanation: Orphanet definition explicitly lists hematuria as a clinical manifestation of ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Cyst hemorrhage and/or gross hematuria usually responds to bed rest, analgesics, and adequate hydration."
    explanation: GeneReviews discusses management of cyst-related hematuria in ADPKD.
- name: Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections
  category: Renal
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Urinary tract and cyst infections are a significant complication, sometimes difficult to treat.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Recurrent urinary tract infections
    term:
      id: HP:0000010
      label: Recurrent urinary tract infections
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000010 | Recurrent urinary tract infections | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists recurrent UTIs as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "characterized by progressive outgrowths of fluid-filled cysts from the renal epithelium, which can manifest with hematuria, urinary tract infections, hypertension, and abdominal or flank pain"
    explanation: Orphanet definition lists urinary tract infections as a clinical feature.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Treatment of cyst infections is difficult, with a high failure rate."
    explanation: GeneReviews notes that cyst infections are difficult to treat in ADPKD.
- name: Enlarged Kidney
  category: Renal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: Progressive bilateral kidney enlargement due to cyst growth, quantifiable by total kidney volume.
  notes: Orphanet lists as Occasional, but clinical data suggests higher frequency in symptomatic ADPKD cohorts.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Enlarged kidney
    term:
      id: HP:0000105
      label: Enlarged kidney
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000105 | Enlarged kidney | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet lists enlarged kidney as occasional; however clinical imaging studies suggest higher frequency in diagnosed ADPKD patients.
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Patients with MIC 1C to MIC 1E have larger kidneys because of more rapid growth (6%-10% per year)"
    explanation: JAMA review describes progressive kidney enlargement as a hallmark feature quantified by Mayo Imaging Classification.
- name: Nephrolithiasis
  category: Renal
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Kidney stones occur in 20-28% of ADPKD patients, including uric acid and calcium oxalate stones.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Nephrolithiasis
    term:
      id: HP:0000787
      label: Nephrolithiasis
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000791 | Uric acid nephrolithiasis | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet lists uric acid nephrolithiasis as occasional in ADPKD; broader nephrolithiasis term used here to cover both stone types.
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0008672 | Calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet also lists calcium oxalate stones as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Treatment of nephrolithiasis is standard."
    explanation: GeneReviews mentions nephrolithiasis as a known complication requiring treatment in ADPKD.
- name: Mitral Valve Prolapse
  category: Cardiovascular
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Cardiac valvular abnormality reported in ADPKD patients as an extrarenal manifestation.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Mitral valve prolapse
    term:
      id: HP:0001634
      label: Mitral valve prolapse
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001634 | Mitral valve prolapse | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists mitral valve prolapse as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "dilatation of the aortic root and dissection of the thoracic aorta; mitral valve prolapse; and abdominal wall hernias"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists mitral valve prolapse among the extrarenal manifestations of ADPKD.
- name: Aortic Root Aneurysm
  category: Cardiovascular
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Aortic root dilatation and risk of thoracic aortic dissection reported in ADPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Aortic root aneurysm
    term:
      id: HP:0002616
      label: Aortic root aneurysm
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0002616 | Aortic root aneurysm | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists aortic root aneurysm as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "dilatation of the aortic root and dissection of the thoracic aorta; mitral valve prolapse; and abdominal wall hernias"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists aortic root dilatation and thoracic aortic dissection as extrarenal manifestations.
- name: Pancreatic Cysts
  category: Gastrointestinal
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Cysts in the pancreas occur as an extrarenal manifestation.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Pancreatic cysts
    term:
      id: HP:0001737
      label: Pancreatic cysts
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001737 | Pancreatic cysts | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists pancreatic cysts as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists pancreatic cysts among the extrarenal cystic manifestations of ADPKD.
- name: Albuminuria
  category: Renal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  description: Increased urinary albumin excretion, an early marker of kidney damage in ADPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Albuminuria
    term:
      id: HP:0012592
      label: Albuminuria
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0012592 | Albuminuria | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists albuminuria as frequent in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "urine studies for microalbuminuria or proteinuria every one to five years in adults depending on disease stage"
    explanation: GeneReviews recommends surveillance for albuminuria/proteinuria in ADPKD.
- name: Reduced Sperm Motility
  category: Reproductive
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Seminal vesicle cysts and reduced sperm motility reported in male ADPKD patients.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Reduced sperm motility
    term:
      id: HP:0012207
      label: Reduced sperm motility
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0012207 | Reduced sperm motility | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists reduced sperm motility as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
    explanation: GeneReviews documents seminal vesicle cysts which can impair sperm motility.
- name: Arachnoid Cyst
  category: Neurological
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Arachnoid membrane cysts as a rare extrarenal cystic manifestation.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Arachnoid cyst
    term:
      id: HP:0100702
      label: Arachnoid cyst
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0100702 | Arachnoid cyst | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists arachnoid cyst as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "cysts in the pancreas, seminal vesicles, and arachnoid membrane"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists arachnoid membrane cysts as an extrarenal manifestation.
- name: Pyelonephritis
  category: Renal
  frequency: OCCASIONAL
  description: Kidney infections that may be complicated by cyst infections in ADPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Pyelonephritis
    term:
      id: HP:0012330
      label: Pyelonephritis
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0012330 | Pyelonephritis | Occasional (29-5%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists pyelonephritis as occasional in ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:40371605
    reference_title: "Changes in Protein Expression of Renal Drug Transporters and Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease Patients."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "Comorbidities include hypertension, flank pain, and bacterial infections."
    explanation: Proteomic study notes bacterial infections broadly; pyelonephritis specifically supported by ORPHA:730.
- name: Hepatic Fibrosis
  category: Hepatic
  frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Congenital hepatic fibrosis is a hallmark of ARPKD, resulting from ductal plate malformation.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Hepatic fibrosis
    term:
      id: HP:0001395
      label: Hepatic fibrosis
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001395 | Hepatic fibrosis | Very frequent (99-80%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists hepatic fibrosis as very frequent in ARPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "characterized by cystic dilatation and ectasia of renal collecting tubules, and a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
    explanation: Orphanet definition identifies congenital hepatic fibrosis as a defining feature of ARPKD.
- name: Pulmonary Hypoplasia
  category: Respiratory
  frequency: FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Underdeveloped lungs due to oligohydramnios from severe fetal kidney disease.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Pulmonary hypoplasia
    term:
      id: HP:0002089
      label: Pulmonary hypoplasia
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0002089 | Pulmonary hypoplasia | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists pulmonary hypoplasia as frequent in ARPKD.
  - reference: PMID:24162855
    reference_title: "Wnt and planar cell polarity signaling in cystic renal disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "extreme bilateral enlargement of cystic kidneys in utero associated with hepatic ductal plate abnormalities and pulmonary hypoplasia"
    explanation: Review confirms pulmonary hypoplasia as a key feature of severe ARPKD.
- name: Oligohydramnios
  category: Prenatal
  frequency: FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Reduced amniotic fluid from impaired fetal renal function in severe ARPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Oligohydramnios
    term:
      id: HP:0001562
      label: Oligohydramnios
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001562 | Oligohydramnios | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists oligohydramnios as frequent in ARPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "Potter-sequence, oligohydramnios, pulmonary hypoplasia, and massively enlarged echogenic kidneys"
    explanation: Orphanet definition lists oligohydramnios as part of the severe ARPKD presentation.
- name: Portal Hypertension
  category: Hepatic
  frequency: FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Elevated portal venous pressure secondary to congenital hepatic fibrosis in ARPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Portal hypertension
    term:
      id: HP:0001409
      label: Portal hypertension
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0001409 | Portal hypertension | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists portal hypertension as frequent in ARPKD.
- name: Congenital Hepatic Fibrosis
  category: Hepatic
  frequency: FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Ductal plate malformation leading to periportal fibrosis and bile duct proliferation.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Congenital hepatic fibrosis
    term:
      id: HP:0002612
      label: Congenital hepatic fibrosis
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0002612 | Congenital hepatic fibrosis | Frequent (79-30%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists congenital hepatic fibrosis as frequent in ARPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "a ductal plate malformation of the liver resulting in congenital hepatic fibrosis"
    explanation: Orphanet definition identifies congenital hepatic fibrosis from ductal plate malformation as a defining ARPKD feature.
- name: Polycystic Kidney Dysplasia
  category: Renal
  frequency: VERY_FREQUENT
  subtype: Autosomal Recessive PKD (ARPKD)
  description: Bilateral cystic dilatation and ectasia of renal collecting tubules, a defining renal feature of ARPKD.
  phenotype_term:
    preferred_term: Polycystic kidney dysplasia
    term:
      id: HP:0000113
      label: Polycystic kidney dysplasia
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "HP:0000113 | Polycystic kidney dysplasia | Very frequent (99-80%)"
    explanation: Orphanet phenotype table lists polycystic kidney dysplasia as very frequent in ARPKD.
  - reference: ORPHA:731
    reference_title: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "characterized by cystic dilatation and ectasia of renal collecting tubules"
    explanation: Orphanet definition describes the collecting tubule cystic dysplasia that defines ARPKD kidney pathology.
biochemical:
- name: Total Kidney Volume (height-adjusted)
  presence: Increased
  context: >-
    Height-adjusted total kidney volume (htTKV) measured by MRI/CT is an
    imaging biomarker of cumulative cyst burden and progressive kidney
    enlargement in ADPKD.
  readouts:
  - target: "Epithelial Proliferation and Kidney Enlargement"
    relationship: READOUT_OF
    direction: POSITIVE
    endpoint_context: PROGNOSTIC
    regulatory_endpoint_refs:
    - FDA-SE-adult-noncancer-090
    interpretation: >-
      Height-adjusted total kidney volume is an imaging readout of cumulative
      cyst burden and progressive kidney enlargement; larger and faster-growing
      TKV predicts steeper eGFR decline and earlier end-stage renal disease,
      supporting TKV as a prognostic enrichment biomarker for ADPKD trial
      patient selection, not a validated treatment-efficacy surrogate.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:24904092
      reference_title: "Imaging classification of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease: a simple model for selecting patients for clinical trials."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "The frequency of ESRD at 10 years increased from subclass 1A (2.4%) to 1E (66.9%) in the Mayo cohort and from 1C (2.2%) to 1E (22.3%) in the younger CRISP cohort."
      explanation: >-
        Irazabal/CRISP imaging classification stratifies ADPKD patients by
        eGFR-decline rate and 10-year ESRD risk using height-adjusted TKV,
        qualifying TKV as a prognostic enrichment biomarker.
- name: Elevated Creatinine
  presence: Elevated
  context: Marker of declining renal function in advanced disease
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "The change from baseline in the estimated GFR was -2.34 ml per minute per 1.73 m2"
    explanation: Progressive GFR decline reflects rising creatinine as renal function deteriorates.
- name: Decreased GFR
  presence: Decreased
  context: Progressive decline reflecting nephron loss
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "as compared with -3.61 ml per minute per 1.73 m2 (95% CI, -4.08 to -3.14) in the placebo group"
    explanation: Trial quantifies ongoing GFR loss in ADPKD absent disease-modifying therapy.
genetic:
- name: PKD1 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: PKD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9008
      label: PKD1
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes polycystin-1; typically more severe phenotype with earlier onset of ESRD
  case_fractions:
  - population: ADPKD cases
    case_fraction_percent: 78.0
    notes: >-
      Share of ADPKD attributed to PKD1 in the 2025 JAMA review. Older sources
      put it nearer 85 percent; this row follows the figure the cited review
      states.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:40126492
      reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
      explanation: Quantifies the PKD1 share of molecularly resolved ADPKD.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
    explanation: JAMA review quantifies PKD1 as the predominant cause of ADPKD.
- name: PKD2 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: PKD2
    term:
      id: hgnc:9009
      label: PKD2
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes polycystin-2; milder phenotype with later onset of ESRD
  case_fractions:
  - population: ADPKD cases
    case_fraction_percent: 15.0
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:40126492
      reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
      snippet: "ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
      explanation: Quantifies the PKD2 share of molecularly resolved ADPKD.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "ADPKD is typically diagnosed in individuals aged 27 to 42 years and is primarily caused by pathogenic variants in the PKD1 (78%) or PKD2 (15%) genes."
    explanation: JAMA review documents PKD2 as a minority but established cause of ADPKD.
- name: PKHD1 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: PKHD1
    term:
      id: hgnc:9016
      label: PKHD1
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: PKD4
  association: Causative
  notes: Causes autosomal recessive PKD; encodes fibrocystin/polyductin
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:41467628
    reference_title: "Clinical characteristics and genotype-phenotype correlation for patients with autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease and PKHD1 mutations."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is a rare disorder mainly caused by mutations in the polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1 (PKHD1) gene."
    explanation: Clin Nephrol study states PKHD1 mutations as the primary cause of ARPKD.
- name: DZIP1L Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: DZIP1L
    term:
      id: hgnc:26551
      label: DZIP1L
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: PKD5
  association: Causative
  notes: >-
    Encodes DAZ interacting zinc finger protein 1 like, a ciliary transition-zone
    protein; the second gene of the autosomal recessive form, acting on ciliary
    entry of the polycystins rather than on fibrocystin.
  evidence:
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_f1e2d1d2-b77c-4f1a-b185-31e3a95aae9b-2024-03-29T160000.000Z
    reference_title: "DZIP1L / autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "DZIP1L | HGNC:26551 | autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0009889 | AR | Definitive"
    explanation: ClinGen grades the DZIP1L relationship with the recessive form Definitive.
  - reference: PMID:28530676
    reference_title: "Mutations in DZIP1L, which encodes a ciliary-transition-zone protein, cause autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "DZIP1L localizes to centrioles and to the distal ends of basal bodies, and interacts with septin2, a protein implicated in maintenance of the periciliary diffusion barrier at the ciliary transition zone."
    explanation: >-
      Localizes the DZIP1L product to the transition zone and names the septin2
      interaction behind the diffusion-barrier defect.
- name: GANAB Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: GANAB
    term:
      id: hgnc:4138
      label: GANAB
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes glucosidase II alpha subunit; causes a milder ADPKD phenotype
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "GANAB | glucosidase II alpha subunit | hgnc:4138 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) in"
    explanation: Orphanet gene table lists GANAB as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists GANAB among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
- name: DNAJB11 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: DNAJB11
    term:
      id: hgnc:14889
      label: DNAJB11
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes DnaJ heat shock protein family member B11; causes ADPKD with loss of function mechanism
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "DNAJB11 | DnaJ heat shock protein family (Hsp40) member B11 | hgnc:14889 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
    explanation: Orphanet gene table lists DNAJB11 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists DNAJB11 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
- name: ALG5 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: ALG5
    term:
      id: hgnc:20266
      label: ALG5
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes dolichyl-phosphate beta-glucosyltransferase; rare cause of ADPKD
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "ALG5 | ALG5 dolichyl-phosphate beta-glucosyltransferase | hgnc:20266 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) in"
    explanation: Orphanet gene table lists ALG5 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists ALG5 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
- name: ALG9 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: ALG9
    term:
      id: hgnc:15672
      label: ALG9
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase; causes ADPKD via loss of function
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "ALG9 | ALG9 alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase | hgnc:15672 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
    explanation: Orphanet gene table lists ALG9 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists ALG9 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_38d817af-0a28-4453-a00f-ffccadbd9936-2023-09-11T160000.000Z
    reference_title: "ALG9 / ALG9-associated autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (Definitive)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "ALG9 | HGNC:15672 | ALG9-associated autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0700000 | AD | Definitive"
    explanation: >-
      ClinGen grades ALG9 Definitive, against its own dedicated MONDO class
      MONDO:0700000, which is asserted as a child of MONDO:0004691.
- name: IFT140 Mutations
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: IFT140
    term:
      id: hgnc:29077
      label: IFT140
  relationship_type: CAUSATIVE
  subtype: Autosomal Dominant PKD (ADPKD)
  association: Causative
  notes: Encodes intraflagellar transport 140; causes ADPKD via loss of function, linking to ciliary dysfunction
  evidence:
  - reference: ORPHA:730
    reference_title: "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "IFT140 | intraflagellar transport 140 | hgnc:29077 | Disease-causing germline mutation(s) (loss of function) in"
    explanation: Orphanet gene table lists IFT140 as a disease-causing gene for ADPKD via loss of function.
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "a heterozygous pathogenic variant in PKD1, PKD2, or one of the less common associated genes (ALG5, ALG9, DNAJB11, GANAB, IFT140)"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists IFT140 among the less common ADPKD-associated genes.
- name: CYS1
  gene_term:
    preferred_term: CYS1
    term:
      id: hgnc:18525
      label: CYS1
  association: Pathogenic Variants
  relationship_type: UNKNOWN
  notes: >-
    Typed UNKNOWN because the only assertion cited here is ClinGen's Limited
    grade, which does not establish the gene-disease relationship. No `subtype:`
    is assigned: that ClinGen row is scored against MONDO:0020642 polycystic
    kidney disease, the generic class, so it does not place CYS1 under the
    autosomal recessive row specifically.
  evidence:
  - reference: CGGV:assertion_9b3fd5b2-e89e-409a-9802-35cf6ac26913-2024-03-11T160000.000Z
    reference_title: "CYS1 / polycystic kidney disease (Limited)"
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: OTHER
    snippet: "CYS1 | HGNC:18525 | polycystic kidney disease | MONDO:0020642 | AR | Limited"
    explanation: ClinGen classifies the CYS1-polycystic kidney disease gene-disease relationship as limited with autosomal recessive inheritance.
environmental:
- name: Caffeine Consumption
  exposure_term:
    preferred_term: caffeine exposure
    term:
      id: ECTO:9000205
      label: exposure to caffeine
  notes: May accelerate cyst growth through increased cAMP levels; patients often advised to limit intake
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:20301424
    reference_title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Agents/circumstances to avoid: Long-term administration of nephrotoxic agents, high levels of caffeine, high-salt diet, smoking, and obesity"
    explanation: GeneReviews lists high caffeine intake as an avoidable factor in ADPKD management.
  influences_mechanisms:
  - target: Vasopressin/cAMP-Driven Cyst Expansion
    environmental_effect: EXACERBATES
    causal_link_type: DIRECT
    description: >-
      Caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase, so it raises cAMP accumulation in cyst
      epithelium and amplifies the vasopressin signal that drives cyst expansion.
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:12397042
      reference_title: The effect of caffeine on renal epithelial cells from patients
        with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.
      supports: SUPPORT
      directness: DIRECT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: PDE inhibition by caffeine increases the accumulation of cAMP, and
        through this mechanism activates the ERK pathway to cellular proliferation
        and increases transepithelial fluid secretion in ADPKD cystic epithelium
      explanation: >-
        Mural epithelial cells cultured from ADPKD cysts, at clinically relevant
        caffeine concentrations of 10-50 micromolar. The same abstract identifies
        proliferation and chloride-dependent fluid accumulation as the mechanisms
        underlying cyst expansion, so this quote reaches the node rather than
        stopping at cAMP. Caffeine's potentiation was measured against desmopressin,
        the vasopressin analogue, which is the node's own signal.
treatments:
- name: Tolvaptan
  description: >
    Vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist that slows cyst growth and kidney
    enlargement in ADPKD. First disease-modifying therapy approved for ADPKD.
    Requires hepatic monitoring due to risk of elevated liver enzymes.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
    therapeutic_agent:
    - preferred_term: tolvaptan
      term:
        id: CHEBI:32246
        label: tolvaptan
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Tolvaptan resulted in a slower decline than placebo in the estimated GFR over a 1-year period in patients with later-stage ADPKD."
    explanation: REPRISE trial demonstrated tolvaptan efficacy in slowing GFR decline in PKD patients.
  - reference: PMID:39848746
    reference_title: "KDIGO 2025 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation, management, and treatment of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): executive summary."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "therapies to delay progression of kidney disease"
    explanation: KDIGO 2025 guideline covers tolvaptan among therapies to delay kidney disease progression in ADPKD.
- name: Blood Pressure Control
  description: >
    Aggressive hypertension management with ACE inhibitors or ARBs to slow
    disease progression and reduce cardiovascular risk.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Pharmacotherapy
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15986
      label: Pharmacotherapy
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "First-line treatment includes blood pressure control, dietary and weight management, and adequate hydration."
    explanation: "JAMA review confirms blood pressure control as first-line treatment for ADPKD."
  - reference: PMID:39848746
    reference_title: "KDIGO 2025 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation, management, and treatment of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): executive summary."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: HUMAN_CLINICAL
    snippet: "kidney manifestations; chronic kidney disease (CKD) management and progression, kidney failure, and kidney replacement therapy; therapies to delay progression of kidney disease"
    explanation: KDIGO 2025 guideline covers CKD management including blood pressure control as part of comprehensive ADPKD care.
- name: Renal Dialysis
  description: >
    Dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) for end-stage renal disease.
    PKD is one of the leading causes of kidney failure requiring dialysis.
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: Dialysis
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15221
      label: Dialysis
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age."
    explanation: "JAMA review confirms high rate of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis/transplant) in ADPKD."
- name: Kidney Transplantation
  description: >
    Kidney transplantation is the preferred treatment for end-stage renal disease
    in PKD. Native nephrectomy may be required if kidneys are too large.
  therapeutic_modality: SURGERY
  treatment_term:
    preferred_term: organ transplantation
    term:
      id: NCIT:C15289
      label: Organ Transplantation
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Approximately 50% of individuals with ADPKD require kidney replacement therapy by 62 years of age."
    explanation: "JAMA review confirms high rate of kidney replacement therapy (dialysis/transplant) in ADPKD."
differential_diagnoses:
- name: Simple Renal Cysts (Age-Related)
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: simple renal cyst
    term:
      id: MONDO:0004840
      label: non-congenital cyst of kidney
  description: >
    Solitary or few benign cysts that enlarge slowly with age and lack family history
    or extrarenal cysts. ADPKD shows bilateral numerous cysts with progressive total
    kidney volume growth.
  distinguishing_features:
  - Typically solitary or few cysts without kidney enlargement
  - No hepatic cysts or family history of cystic disease
  - Stable kidney function and volume over time
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:29105594
    reference_title: "Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "the vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan slowed the growth in total kidney volume"
    explanation: Progressive total kidney volume growth distinguishes ADPKD from stable simple cysts.
- name: Acquired Cystic Kidney Disease (ACKD)
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: acquired cystic kidney disease
    term:
      id: MONDO:0002473
      label: cystic kidney disease
  description: >
    Cystic change that develops in chronically dialyzed kidneys, usually in the
    setting of long-standing kidney failure. Kidneys are often small or normal size
    rather than massively enlarged as in ADPKD.
  distinguishing_features:
  - Occurs after years of dialysis or advanced CKD without family history
  - Kidneys remain small/normal sized rather than enlarged
  - Lacks extensive hepatic cysts common in ADPKD
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Patients with MIC 1C to MIC 1E have larger kidneys because of more rapid growth (6%-10% per year)"
    explanation: Rapid kidney enlargement in ADPKD contrasts with small kidneys seen in ACKD.
- name: Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC)
  disease_term:
    preferred_term: tuberous sclerosis
    term:
      id: MONDO:0001734
      label: tuberous sclerosis
  description: >
    Genetic disorder with renal cysts and angiomyolipomas that can mimic ADPKD but
    accompanied by dermatologic and neurologic manifestations.
  distinguishing_features:
  - Renal angiomyolipomas and cortical tubers with seizures or developmental issues
  - Cutaneous findings (facial angiofibromas, hypomelanotic macules) absent in ADPKD
  - ADPKD frequently shows extensive hepatic cysts, which are uncommon in TSC
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:40126492
    reference_title: "Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease: A Review."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "More than 90% of patients older than 35 years have hepatic cysts"
    explanation: High hepatic cyst burden supports ADPKD over TSC when liver cysts dominate.
experimental_models:
- name: ADPKD kidney organoid cystogenesis model
  description: >-
    Human kidney organoids derived from patient-specific or gene-edited induced
    pluripotent stem cells model early ADPKD cyst initiation in a genetically
    relevant renal epithelial context and support preclinical compound testing.
  experimental_model_type: ORGANOID
  namo_type: namo:Organoid
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  tissue_term:
    preferred_term: kidney
    term:
      id: UBERON:0002113
      label: kidney
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  conditions:
  - autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
  - PKD1 heterozygous mutation
  - patient-derived hiPSC
  - gene-edited hiPSC
  - healthy control
  cell_source: Disease-specific or gene-edited human induced pluripotent stem cells differentiated into kidney organoids
  culture_system: Three-dimensional kidney organoid culture with differentiated renal epithelial cyst readouts
  publication: PMID:32819584
  findings:
  - statement: ADPKD kidney organoids reproduce renal cyst formation from genetically relevant human renal epithelium
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:32819584
      reference_title: "A novel ADPKD model using kidney organoids derived from disease-specific human iPSCs."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Importantly, we found that kidney organoids differentiated from gene-edited heterozygous PKD1-mutant as well as ADPKD patient-derived hiPSCs can reproduce renal cysts."
      explanation: Shows that both engineered and patient-derived human iPSC kidney organoids recapitulate the core cystic phenotype of ADPKD.
  - statement: Tubular epithelial organoids also capture early PKD1-linked morphogenesis and ciliary defects relevant to cyst initiation
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:40140667
      reference_title: "PKD1 mutation perturbs morphogenesis in tubular epithelial organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "PKD1 null (PKD1-/-) organoids spontaneously develop dilated tubules, recapitulating early ADPKD cystogenesis. Furthermore, PKD1-/- tubules present primary cilia defects when dilated."
      explanation: Supports a restrained mechanistic link between human organoid phenotypes and the ciliary and tubular morphogenesis abnormalities represented in PKD pathophysiology.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:32819584
    reference_title: "A novel ADPKD model using kidney organoids derived from disease-specific human iPSCs."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Here, we report a novel ADPKD model using kidney organoids derived from disease-specific human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)."
    explanation: Supports this as a first-class human organoid model for ADPKD.
  notes: >-
    Most informative for early epithelial and ciliary mechanisms of cyst
    initiation rather than late interstitial remodeling.
- name: Adult ADPKD kidney tubuloid model
  description: >-
    Adult kidney tubuloids expanded from CD24-positive tubular epithelial cells
    provide a long-term human epithelial model of ADPKD that preserves adult
    tubular identity and supports pharmacologic testing.
  experimental_model_type: ORGANOID
  namo_type: namo:Organoid
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  tissue_term:
    preferred_term: kidney
    term:
      id: UBERON:0002113
      label: kidney
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  conditions:
  - autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
  - PKD1 knockout
  - PKD2 knockout
  - control kidney tissue
  cell_source: Adult human kidney CD24-positive tubular epithelial cells expanded as tubuloids, with CRISPR-edited PKD1 or PKD2 knockout comparators
  culture_system: Long-term three-dimensional adult kidney tubuloid culture with single-cell transcriptomic and cyst-size readouts
  publication: PMID:36303074
  findings:
  - statement: Adult kidney tubuloids reconstitute cyst formation and disease-driving transcriptional programs seen in human ADPKD tissue
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:36303074
      reference_title: "Adult human kidney organoids originate from CD24(+) cells and represent an advanced model for adult polycystic kidney disease."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "We show that kidney tubuloids can be used to model the most common inherited kidney disease, namely autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), reconstituting the phenotypic hallmark of this disease with cyst formation."
      explanation: Establishes adult kidney tubuloids as a disease-relevant human model that reproduces cyst formation.
    - reference: PMID:36303074
      reference_title: "Adult human kidney organoids originate from CD24(+) cells and represent an advanced model for adult polycystic kidney disease."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Single-cell RNA sequencing of CRISPR-Cas9 gene-edited PKD1- and PKD2-knockout tubuloids and human ADPKD and control tissue shows similarities in upregulation of disease-driving genes."
      explanation: Links the tubuloid phenotype to transcriptional programs observed in human ADPKD tissue.
  - statement: This adult epithelial model supports response testing for the clinically used V2-receptor antagonist tolvaptan
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:36303074
      reference_title: "Adult human kidney organoids originate from CD24(+) cells and represent an advanced model for adult polycystic kidney disease."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Furthermore, in a proof of concept, we demonstrate that tolvaptan, the only approved drug for ADPKD, has a significant effect on cyst size in tubuloids but no effect on a pluripotent stem cell-derived model."
      explanation: Provides translational relevance for a model aligned to vasopressin-linked cyst expansion biology.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:36303074
    reference_title: "Adult human kidney organoids originate from CD24(+) cells and represent an advanced model for adult polycystic kidney disease."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Long-term-cultured CD24+ cell-derived tubuloids represent a functional human kidney tubule."
    explanation: Supports the use of adult human tubuloids as a renal epithelial model system for PKD.
  notes: >-
    Useful when adult tubular identity or differential tolvaptan response is
    the focus, rather than early nephrogenic organoid phenotypes.
- name: ARPKD organoid-on-chip mechanosensing model
  description: >-
    Perfused human PKHD1-mutant kidney organoids integrated with organ-on-chip
    culture introduce flow-dependent biophysical cues missing from static
    culture and expose distal-nephron dilation and mechanosensing programs
    relevant to ARPKD.
  experimental_model_type: ORGAN_ON_CHIP
  namo_type: namo:OrganOnChip
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  tissue_term:
    preferred_term: kidney
    term:
      id: UBERON:0002113
      label: kidney
  cell_types:
  - preferred_term: nephron tubule epithelial cell
    term:
      id: CL:1000494
      label: nephron tubule epithelial cell
  conditions:
  - autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease
  - PKHD1 mutation
  - flow culture
  - static organoid control
  cell_source: Human PKHD1-mutant kidney organoids derived from induced pluripotent stem cells
  culture_system: Perfused organoid-on-chip culture comparing flow and static conditions
  publication: PMID:36129975
  findings:
  - statement: Flow-conditioned ARPKD organoid-on-chip cultures reveal distal nephron dilatation not captured by static organoids alone
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:36129975
      reference_title: "Organoid-on-a-chip model of human ARPKD reveals mechanosensing pathomechanisms for drug discovery."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "PKHD1-mutant organoids-on-a-chip are subjected to flow that induces clinically relevant phenotypes of distal nephron dilatation."
      explanation: Supports the role of the chip platform in revealing flow-dependent tubular dilation relevant to ARPKD.
    - reference: PMID:36129975
      reference_title: "Organoid-on-a-chip model of human ARPKD reveals mechanosensing pathomechanisms for drug discovery."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Transcriptomics discover 229 signal pathways that are not identified by static models."
      explanation: Shows that adding biophysical flow changes the mechanistic readout relative to static organoid systems.
  - statement: The chip model nominates mechanosensing targets and supports experimental suppression of cyst formation
    evidence:
    - reference: PMID:36129975
      reference_title: "Organoid-on-a-chip model of human ARPKD reveals mechanosensing pathomechanisms for drug discovery."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "Mechanosensing molecules, RAC1 and FOS, are identified as potential therapeutic targets and validated by patient kidney samples."
      explanation: Grounds the model's mechanistic utility in pathway discovery linked to patient tissue.
    - reference: PMID:36129975
      reference_title: "Organoid-on-a-chip model of human ARPKD reveals mechanosensing pathomechanisms for drug discovery."
      supports: SUPPORT
      evidence_source: IN_VITRO
      snippet: "On the basis of this insight, we tested two U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved and one investigational new drugs that target RAC1 and FOS in our organoid-on-a-chip model, which suppressed cyst formation."
      explanation: Demonstrates utility of the ARPKD chip model for experimental therapeutic testing.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:36129975
    reference_title: "Organoid-on-a-chip model of human ARPKD reveals mechanosensing pathomechanisms for drug discovery."
    supports: SUPPORT
    evidence_source: IN_VITRO
    snippet: "Here, we unite organoids with organ-on-a-chip technology to unravel disease pathology and develop therapies for autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease."
    explanation: Supports this as a disease-relevant human organoid-on-chip model for ARPKD.
  notes: >-
    Most directly informs flow-dependent tubular dilation and mechanosensing
    rather than the full systemic hepatorenal phenotype of ARPKD.
datasets:
- accession: geo:GSE7869
  title: Expression data from renal cysts of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients
  description: Microarray profiling comparing ADPKD kidney cyst epithelium with non-cystic kidney tissue to identify dysregulated pathways in cyst growth.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  data_type: MICROARRAY
  sample_types:
  - preferred_term: kidney epithelium
    tissue_term:
      preferred_term: kidney
      term:
        id: UBERON:0002113
        label: kidney
  conditions:
  - ADPKD cyst epithelium
  - non-cystic kidney tissue
  publication: PMID:19346236
  notes: >-
    Public ADPKD microarray dataset frequently used to study cystogenesis-related signaling changes.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:23524344
    reference_title: "Defective glucose metabolism in polycystic kidney disease identifies a new therapeutic strategy."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "Microarray data are available at GEO website (accession number: GSE7869)."
    explanation: Confirms the GEO accession for the ADPKD cyst epithelium microarray dataset.
  - reference: PMID:19346236
    reference_title: "Systems biology of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): computational identification of gene expression pathways and integrated regulatory networks."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "To elucidate the molecular pathways that modulate renal cyst growth in ADPKD, we performed global gene profiling on cysts of different size (<1 ml, n = 5; 10-20 ml, n = 5; >50 ml, n = 3) and minimally cystic tissue (MCT, n = 5) from five PKD1 human polycystic kidneys using Affymetrix HG-U133 Plus 2.0 arrays."
    explanation: Describes the PKD1 cyst epithelium microarray experiment underlying GSE7869.

- accession: gtex:GTEx_v8_Kidney_Cortex
  title: GTEx v8 kidney cortex bulk RNA-seq
  description: Bulk RNA-seq from healthy kidney cortex samples providing control transcriptomes for comparison to ADPKD cystic tissue.
  organism:
    preferred_term: human
    term:
      id: NCBITaxon:9606
      label: Homo sapiens
  data_type: BULK_RNA_SEQ
  sample_types:
  - preferred_term: kidney cortex
    tissue_term:
      preferred_term: kidney cortex
      term:
        id: UBERON:0001225
        label: cortex of kidney
  publication: PMID:39815096
  notes: >-
    Healthy kidney reference transcriptomes useful as baseline controls for differential expression analyses in ADPKD studies.
  evidence:
  - reference: PMID:39815096
    reference_title: "The human and non-human primate developmental GTEx projects."
    supports: SUPPORT
    snippet: "The data will comprise whole-genome sequencing, extensive bulk, single-cell and spatial gene expression profiles, and chromatin accessibility data across tissues and development."
    explanation: Establishes dGTEx as a bulk expression resource providing control transcriptomes across tissues including kidney.
references:
- reference: PMID:20301424
  title: "Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant."
  tags:
  - GeneReviews
  findings: []
- reference: PMID:20301501
  title: Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease – PKHD1.
  tags:
  - GeneReviews
  findings: []
📚

References & Deep Research

References

2
PMID:20301424
Polycystic Kidney Disease, Autosomal Dominant.
No top-level findings curated for this source.
PMID:20301501
Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease – PKHD1.
No top-level findings curated for this source.

Deep Research

2

Deep research results are used as seeds for research; they do not undergo the same validation as the main records and may contain errors. How we use deep research.

Disorder ▸

Disorder

  • Name: Polycystic Kidney Disease
  • Category: Mendelian
  • Existing deep-research providers: falcon
  • Existing evidence reference count in YAML: 31

Key Pathophysiology Nodes

  • Vasopressin/cAMP-Driven Cyst Expansion
  • Epithelial Proliferation and Kidney Enlargement
  • Ciliary Dysfunction
  • Fibrosis and Inflammation

Citation Inventory (for evidence mapping)

  • (none extracted)
Falcon ▸
Disease Pathophysiology Research Report
Edison Scientific Literature 18 citations 2026-01-08T22:04:09.817602

Disease Pathophysiology Research Report

Target Disease - Disease Name: Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) - MONDO ID: — - Category: Mendelian (autosomal dominant and recessive forms)

Pathophysiology description Polycystic kidney disease is a systemic ciliopathy in which inherited defects in cilia-associated proteins of renal tubular epithelia trigger cyst initiation, clonal expansion, and progressive remodeling of kidney architecture, culminating in chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease. In autosomal dominant PKD (ADPKD), loss-of-function mutations in PKD1 (polycystin‑1, PC1) or PKD2 (polycystin‑2, PC2) compromise primary-cilium mechanosensation and calcium flux, elevating cAMP and activating proliferative kinase networks (MAPK/ERK and PI3K–AKT–mTOR). These signals reprogram epithelial metabolism toward glycolysis, drive chloride/water secretion into cyst lumens via CFTR, and promote epithelial‑initiated fibrogenesis and interstitial inflammation that together accelerate cyst growth and nephron loss (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). In autosomal recessive PKD (ARPKD), PKHD1 (fibrocystin, FPC) and DZIP1L mutations perturb ciliary/transition-zone function and EGFR/cAMP signaling, producing collecting-duct cysts and hepato-biliary fibrosis; DZIP1L dysfunction also impairs PC1/PC2 ciliary trafficking (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Core Pathophysiology 1) Ciliary dysfunction and mechanotransduction - PC1/PC2 reside at the primary cilium; loss of either reduces intraciliary/cytosolic Ca2+ and disrupts mechanosensory control of downstream growth pathways and polarity cues. Somatic “second hits” are frequent in cyst-lining cells, consistent with a two‑hit model (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Experimental genetic deletion identifies Aurora kinase A (AURKA) as a feed‑forward driver of cystogenesis via AKT; Aurka deletion prevented cyst formation in Pkd1- and Inpp5e‑driven mouse PKD, linking ciliary control, cell-cycle regulation, and AKT signaling (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; published Jan 2024) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2).

2) Ca2+/cAMP axis and chloride/fluid secretion - Lowered Ca2+ disinhibits adenylyl cyclases (AC5/6), raising cAMP; PKA then activates B‑Raf–MEK–ERK and PI3K–AKT and enhances CFTR-mediated Cl− secretion that drives osmotic fluid accumulation and cyst expansion (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - Compartmentalized cAMP nanodomains likely exist; a 2024 thesis highlights PDE3 as a regulator of a potentially cyst-protective cAMP pool and suggests PDE3–PC2 interactions at ER–mitochondria contacts, motivating selective modulation beyond V2R blockade (Paolocci 2024; doctoral thesis) (paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 13-17, paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 1-7).

3) Proliferative kinase signaling - cAMP/PKA cooperates with receptor and integrin inputs to activate B‑Raf–MEK–ERK and PI3K–AKT–mTORC1, which promote proliferation and growth programs central to cyst enlargement. AURKA physically interacts with and regulates AKT, completing a loop that sustains cyst growth and ciliary disassembly; pharmacologic AURKA inhibition with alisertib paradoxically stabilized AURKA protein in vivo, cautioning on target modality (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; Jan 2024) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2).

4) Hippo–YAP/TAZ and RhoA–MRTF fibrosis coupling - Hippo pathway dysregulation in PKD permits nuclear YAP/TAZ and c‑MYC-driven transcription that amplifies proliferative and fibrotic responses (https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984; 5 Jun 2024) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - Loss of PC1/PC2 activates RhoA, actin remodeling, and nuclear translocation of myocardin-related transcription factors (MRTF-A/B), which reprogram the cyst epithelium into a profibrotic epithelial phenotype and paracrine-prime fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition (https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984; 2024) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

5) Wnt/planar cell polarity (PCP) - Noncanonical Wnt/PCP defects disturb oriented cell division and tubule architecture, contributing to dilatation and cyst initiation in inherited cystic diseases (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; 2024) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

6) Metabolic reprogramming and mitochondrial dysfunction - Human PKD1 cyst transcriptomics show Warburg-like shifts: increased glucose uptake and lactate production with broad suppression of FAO, TCA, and OXPHOS; predicted mTORC1/HIF‑1α/MYC activation and AMPK/PGC‑1α suppression provide a regulatory scaffold for these changes (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; 26 Jun 2024) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2).

7) Inflammation/immune pathways - Cystic epithelium and interstitium exhibit immune infiltration with cytokine network activation (e.g., IL‑12/23 family; STAT3), contributing to proliferation and fibrosis; STING and TWEAK/Fn14 axes are implicated as amplifiers (review synthesis) (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; 2024) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Interstitial fibrosis is further supported by fibroblast–macrophage crosstalk and WNT/β‑catenin signaling in CKD, consistent with profibrotic programs in cystic kidneys (contextualized to PKD) (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; 2024) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

8) Extracellular matrix remodeling and fibrosis - Epithelial RhoA–MRTF signaling induces ECM/matricellular genes and secreted mediators that remodel the interstitium; epithelial MRTF is necessary for priming myofibroblast differentiation in PKD models (https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984; 2024) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

Key Molecular Players Genes/Proteins (HGNC symbol; role) - PKD1 (PC1) and PKD2 (PC2): ciliary mechanosensory complex controlling Ca2+ homeostasis; causal in ADPKD (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - PKHD1 (FPC): ciliary membrane/transition-zone protein; causal in ARPKD; DZIP1L: ciliary trafficking; ARPKD modulator (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - CFTR: apical Cl− channel driving fluid secretion in cysts under cAMP control (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - AURKA: kinase/ciliogenesis regulator forming a feed‑forward loop with AKT driving cystogenesis; genetic deletion prevents cysts in mice (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2). - BRAF–MEK–ERK; PI3K–AKT–mTOR: proliferative/growth pathways activated by cAMP and growth cues (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - Hippo effectors YAP1/WWTR1 (TAZ) and RHOA–MRTFA(MKL1)/SRF: proliferation–fibrosis coupling in cyst epithelium (https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - STAT3: activated in cystic epithelia and inflammation networks (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - PDE3, AC5/6: cAMP compartmentalization and synthesis/breakdown influencing cystogenesis (Paolocci 2024 thesis) (paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 13-17, paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 1-7).

Chemical entities (CHEBI) - Calcium ion (CHEBI:29108); cAMP (CHEBI:17489); chloride ion (CHEBI:17996); glucose (CHEBI:17234); lactate (CHEBI:24996); vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist tolvaptan (drug; cAMP-lowering in ADPKD) (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2).

Cell types (CL) - Renal tubular epithelial cells (collecting duct and nephron segments): cyst-lining epithelium (CL term category: epithelial cell) (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Interstitial fibroblasts and myofibroblasts (CL: fibroblast lineage): ECM deposition (https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - Macrophages (CL:0000235): inflammatory crosstalk, pro-fibrotic signaling (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Anatomical locations (UBERON) - Kidney (parenchyma); renal tubule and collecting duct (cyst origin); interstitium; liver/biliary tree (ARPKD, polycystic liver disease) (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Biological Processes (GO) disrupted - Cilium organization and ciliary signaling; mechanosensation; calcium ion homeostasis; cAMP signaling; chloride transport; MAPK cascade; PI3K–AKT–mTOR signaling; Hippo signaling; Wnt/PCP pathway; epithelial cell proliferation; epithelial fluid secretion; mitochondrial electron transport and fatty-acid β‑oxidation; extracellular matrix organization; inflammatory response and JAK–STAT cascade (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2, tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2).

Cellular Components (GO-CC) - Primary cilium, ciliary membrane, basal body; apical plasma membrane (CFTR); endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrion (Ca2+ exchange and metabolism); extracellular region/extracellular matrix (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2).

Disease Progression (sequence of events) - Genetic lesion and second hit: germline PKD1/PKD2 (ADPKD) or PKHD1/DZIP1L (ARPKD) mutations with somatic inactivation in individual tubular cells initiate cysts (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Cyst initiation: ciliary Ca2+ signaling failure increases cAMP; polarity/PCP cues are disturbed; early luminal fluid accumulation occurs via CFTR-mediated Cl− secretion (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Cyst expansion: PKA–ERK and AKT–mTORC1 drive epithelial proliferation and growth; metabolic reprogramming supports biomass and energy; AURKA–AKT feed‑forward loop and Hippo/YAP amplify proliferation; RhoA–MRTF primes fibrosis (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - Tissue remodeling: interstitial inflammation and fibroblast activation produce fibrosis; nephron dropout and vascular rarefaction ensue, causing progressive GFR decline (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - ARPKD distinctions: collecting-duct–predominant cysts with congenital hepatic fibrosis; fibrocystin C-terminal signaling restrains Src/STAT3 and secretory phenotypes in model systems, consistent with heightened STAT3 signaling when FPC is deficient (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Phenotypic Manifestations (HP terms) - Renal cysts (HP:0000107), Enlarged kidneys (HP:0000105), Hypertension (HP:0000822), Hematuria (HP:0000790), Flank/abdominal pain; Hepatic cysts (HP:0001407) and congenital hepatic fibrosis (ARPKD); Intracranial aneurysm risk (HP:0002617). These manifestations reflect tubular cyst burden, interstitial fibrosis/inflammation, and systemic vascular/ductal involvement (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Recent developments and latest research (2023–2024 priority) - AURKA–AKT feed‑forward loop as a master regulator: Aurka deletion prevented PKD across two genetic models; the data highlight non-kinase functions and caution that alisertib can stabilize AURKA in vivo, informing drug design (Nature Communications, 10 Jan 2024; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2). - Human PKD1 cyst metabolic atlas: Systems biology analysis mapped a Warburg shift with predicted mTORC1/HIF‑1α/MYC activation and suppressed AMPK/PGC‑1α, concretizing metabolism-targeted therapies (IJMS, 26 Jun 2024; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - Epithelial-initiated fibrogenesis: PKD epithelium activates RhoA–MRTF programs that prime myofibroblast transition, providing epithelial targets for anti-fibrotic intervention (Cells, 5 Jun 2024; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - ARPKD gene and pathway synthesis: Updated review integrates PKHD1/DZIP1L ciliary biology with EGFR/cAMP and ECM remodeling, clarifying pediatric hepato-renal disease mechanisms (Genes, 5 Jan 2024; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - cAMP compartmentalization: New experimental work proposes PDE3 as a modulator of organelle cAMP nanodomains and potential PC2 interactor at ER–mitochondrial contacts (doctoral thesis, 2024) (paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 13-17, paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 1-7).

Current applications and implementations - Disease-modifying therapy: Tolvaptan (V2R antagonist) is approved to slow ADPKD progression by reducing cAMP; translational metabolism strategies (e.g., ketogenic interventions, AMPK activation) are supported by the human cyst metabolic signatures but require rigorous trials (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - Emerging targets: AURKA–AKT axis, RhoA–MRTF signaling, Hippo/YAP, and cytokine–STAT3 pathways represent testable targets; the in vivo genetic validation of AURKA strengthens prioritization (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

Expert opinions and analysis - 2024 syntheses argue that PKD integrates ciliary signaling failure with proliferative and metabolic rewiring; epithelial cells both initiate cystogenesis and act as paracrine organizers of interstitial fibrosis, implying dual-acting therapies that combine cAMP reduction, proliferation blockade, and anti-fibrotic reprogramming may be required for durable benefit (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Relevant statistics and data from recent studies - Genetic architecture: ADPKD due to PKD1 (~75–85%) or PKD2 (~15–25%); ARPKD due to PKHD1 with DZIP1L as a rarer cause/modifier (2024 review synthesis) (https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Metabolic pathways: In human PKD1 cysts, gene sets for FAO, OXPHOS, BCAA degradation, and TCA cycle were downregulated, while glycolysis and lactate transporters were upregulated, aligning with predicted mTORC1/HIF‑1α/MYC activation and AMPK inhibition (IJMS 2024) (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - In vivo mechanistic validation: Aurka deletion blocked cyst initiation and growth in two independent mouse PKD models and revealed AKT–AURKA physical interaction and a feed‑forward loop (Nature Communications 2024) (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2).

Gene/protein annotations with ontology terms - HGNC: PKD1, PKD2, PKHD1, DZIP1L, CFTR, AURKA, BRAF, MAP2K1 (MEK1), MAPK1 (ERK2), PIK3CA, AKT1, MTOR, YAP1, WWTR1 (TAZ), RHOA, MRTFA (MKL1), SRF, STAT3, ADCY5/6, PDE3A/B (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - GO BP: cilium organization; calcium ion homeostasis; cAMP signaling; chloride transport; MAPK cascade; PI3K–AKT signaling; mTOR signaling; Hippo signaling; Wnt/PCP; epithelial cell proliferation; epithelial fluid secretion; mitochondrial electron transport chain; fatty acid β-oxidation; extracellular matrix organization; inflammatory response; JAK–STAT cascade (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - GO CC: primary cilium; ciliary membrane; basal body; apical plasma membrane; endoplasmic reticulum; mitochondrion; extracellular matrix (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Phenotype associations (HP terms) - Renal cysts (HP:0000107); Enlarged kidneys (HP:0000105); Hypertension (HP:0000822); Hematuria (HP:0000790); Hepatic cysts (HP:0001407); Intracranial aneurysm (HP:0002617) (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Cell type involvement (CL terms) - Renal tubular epithelial cell (cyst-lining); fibroblast/myofibroblast; macrophage (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

Anatomical locations (UBERON terms) - Kidney; renal tubule; collecting duct; renal interstitium; liver/biliary tree (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10).

Chemical entities (CHEBI) - Calcium ion; cAMP; chloride ion; glucose; lactate; tolvaptan (drug) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2).

Evidence items (PMIDs/DOIs and dates) - Tham et al., Nature Communications, 10 Jan 2024. “Deletion of Aurora kinase A prevents the development of polycystic kidney disease in mice.” https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9 (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2). - Song et al., International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 26 Jun 2024. “Reprogramming of Energy Metabolism in Human PKD1 Polycystic Kidney Disease.” https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173 (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - Lichner et al., Cells, 5 Jun 2024. “Myocardin-Related Transcription Factor Mediates Epithelial Fibrogenesis in PKD.” https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984 (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2). - Satariano et al., Genes, 5 Jan 2024. “The Pathophysiology of Inherited Renal Cystic Diseases.” https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10). - Paolocci E., 2024 thesis. “cAMP signalling and phosphodiesterase activity in cystogenesis of ADPKD.” (paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 13-17, paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 1-7).

Summary artifact | Mechanistic domain | Key findings (1–2 sentences) | Principal molecules/genes | Cell types | 2023–2024 sources (journal, year, URL/DOI) | |---|---|---|---|---| | Ciliary dysfunction & mechanotransduction | Loss or dysfunction of PC1/PC2 in primary cilia impairs ciliary Ca2+ mechanosensing, disrupting downstream signaling and promoting cyst initiation; somatic "second hits" in cysts are common. | PKD1 (PC1), PKD2 (PC2), IFT/KIF genes | Renal tubular epithelial cells (collecting duct, nephron epithelia) | Nature Communications, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9 (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2); Genes, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10) | | Ca2+/cAMP and CFTR-mediated Cl- secretion | Reduced intraciliary/cytosolic Ca2+ disinhibits adenylyl cyclases increasing cAMP; cAMP/PKA promotes epithelial proliferation and CFTR-mediated chloride/fluid secretion that expands cysts; V2R antagonism (tolvaptan) lowers cAMP clinically. | AC5/6, cAMP, PDE3, CFTR, AVPR2 (V2R) | Cyst-lining epithelial cells | Unknown journal, 2024 (Paolocci thesis) (paolocci2024campsignallingand pages 13-17); IJMS, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173 (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2) | | Proliferative signaling (MAPK/ERK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR) | cAMP/PKA and growth-receptor signaling activate B-Raf→MEK→ERK and PI3K→AKT→mTORC1, driving cell cycle entry, growth and metabolic programs that sustain cyst growth. | BRAF/MEK/ERK, PI3K, AKT, mTOR, c-MYC | Tubular epithelial cells (cyst epithelium) | Nature Communications, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9 (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2); IJMS, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173 (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2) | | Hippo — YAP/TAZ | Dysregulated Hippo signaling permits nuclear YAP/TAZ activity, promoting transcriptional programs (e.g., c-MYC) that increase proliferation and link to fibrogenic responses. | YAP, TAZ, LATS1/2, MST1/2 | Cyst-lining epithelial cells; epithelial progenitors | Cells, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984 (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2); Genes, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10) | | Wnt / Planar cell polarity (PCP) | Defects in Wnt/PCP signaling disrupt oriented cell division and tubule architecture, contributing to abnormal tubule dilation and cyst formation. | WNT ligands, VANGL/CELSR, DVL | Tubular epithelial cells | Genes, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10) | | Metabolic reprogramming & mitochondria | Cystic epithelia show a Warburg-like shift (↑glycolysis, ↑lactate) with suppressed FAO and OXPHOS, AMPK inhibition and mTOR activation, supporting proliferation and survival. | GLUTs, HK1/2, LDHA, PDK1, AMPK, PGC‑1α | Cyst-lining epithelial cells | IJMS, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173 (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2) | | Inflammation & immune (JAK/STAT, cytokines) | Immune cell infiltration and cytokine dysregulation (e.g., IL‑family) activate JAK/STAT and NF‑κB pathways, amplifying epithelial proliferation and fibrotic remodeling. | IL family (IL‑12/23), JAK/STAT3, NF‑κB, STING, TWEAK/Fn14 | Macrophages, epithelial cells, fibroblasts | Genes, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10); Cells, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984 (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2) | | ECM remodeling & fibrosis (MRTF; fibroblast–macrophage crosstalk) | Epithelial RhoA activation drives MRTF nuclear translocation and profibrotic gene expression, priming fibroblast→myofibroblast transition; reciprocal Wnt–macrophage–fibroblast crosstalk promotes interstitial fibrosis. | RHOA, MRTF‑A/B, SRF, collagen, TGF‑β, WNT | Tubular epithelial cells, interstitial fibroblasts, macrophages | Cells, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984 (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2); Genes, 2024, https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15010091 (satariano2024thepathophysiologyof pages 8-10) | | Cell cycle / ciliogenesis regulators (AURKA) | AURKA is upregulated in PKD, promotes proliferation and ciliary disassembly and forms a feed‑forward loop with AKT; genetic deletion of Aurka prevents cyst formation in mouse PKD models. | AURKA, AKT | Collecting-duct and tubular epithelial cells | Nature Communications, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9 (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2) |

Table: Compact 2023–2024 evidence map summarizing major molecular/cellular mechanisms in ADPKD/ARPKD, with principal genes, affected cell types, and primary sources; useful as a quick reference linking mechanisms to recent literature (context citations included).

Direct quotes supporting key statements - “Deletion of the Aurora Kinase A gene… prevents cyst formation in both disease models… AURKA and AKT physically interact… creating a feed-forward loop driving renal cystogenesis.” (Nature Communications, 2024) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2). - “Gene expression profiles of PKD1 renal cysts were consistent with the Warburg effect… mitochondrial energy metabolism was globally depressed… activation of mTORC1 and… HIF-1α and MYC… AMPK inhibition was predicted in renal cysts.” (IJMS, 2024) (song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2). - “The loss of PC1 or PC2… activated RhoA… robust nuclear MRTF translocation… epithelial MRTF was necessary for the paracrine priming of the fibroblast–myofibroblast transition.” (Cells, 2024) (lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

Conclusion PKD pathogenesis is best understood as an integrated network linking primary-cilium dysfunction and Ca2+/cAMP derangements to proliferative signaling, metabolic reprogramming, and fibrotic/inflammatory remodeling. Recent 2024 studies provide in vivo mechanistic validation (AURKA–AKT) and human cyst metabolic maps (Warburg shift), while epithelial RhoA–MRTF signaling emerges as a nexus between cystogenesis and fibrosis. These insights nominate combined strategies—precise cAMP modulation, anti-proliferative pathway inhibition, and anti-fibrotic reprogramming—as rational avenues to slow disease progression beyond current V2R antagonism (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44410-9; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137173; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells13110984) (tham2024deletionofaurora pages 1-2, song2024reprogrammingofenergy pages 1-2, lichner2024myocardinrelatedtranscriptionfactor pages 1-2).

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